204 CHAPTER 5
token economy
the use of objects called tokens to
reinforce behavior in which the tokens
can be accumulated and exchanged
for desired items or privileges.
As another example, if a teacher wants to use behavior modification to help a child
learn to be more attentive during the teacher’s lectures, the teacher may do the following:- Select a target behavior, such as making eye contact with the teacher.
- Choose a reinforcer. This may be a gold star applied to the child’s chart on the wall,
for example. - Put the plan in action. Every time the child makes eye contact, the teacher gives the
child a gold star. Inappropriate behavior (such as looking out the window) is not
reinforced with gold stars. - At the end of the day, the teacher gives the child a special treat or reward for having
a certain number of gold stars. This special reward is decided on ahead of time and
discussed with the child.
The gold stars in this example can be considered tokens, secondary reinforcers that
can be traded in for other kinds of reinforcers. The use of tokens to modify behavior is
called a token economy. to Learning Objective 15.4. In the example, the child
is collecting gold stars to “buy” the special treat at the end of the day. When one thinks
about it, the system of money is very much a token economy. People are rewarded for
working with money, which they then trade for food, shelter, and so on. Credit card com-
panies encourage the use of their card by offering reward points that can be exchanged
for desirable goods and services, and airlines offer frequent flyer miles. Many fast-food
restaurants offer punch cards or stamps that are exchanged for free food when filled up.
The points, miles, and punches on the cards are all forms of tokens.
Another tool that behaviorists can use to modify behavior is the process of time-out. Time-
out is a form of mild punishment by removal in which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult
is placed in a special area away from the attention of others. Essentially, the organism is being
“removed” from any possibility of positive reinforcement in the form of attention. When used
with children, a time-out should be limited to 1 minute for each year of age, with a maximum
time-out of 10 minutes (longer than that and the child can forget why the time-out occurred).
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the modern term for a form of behavior modifica-
tion that uses both analysis of current behavior and behavioral techniques to address a socially
relevant issue. In ABA, skills are broken down to their simplest steps and then taught to the
child through a system of reinforcement. Prompts (such as moving a child’s face back to look
at the teacher or the task) are given as needed when the child is learning a skill or refuses to
cooperate. As the child begins to master a skill and receives reinforcement in the form of treats
or praise, the prompts are gradually withdrawn until the child can do the skill independently.
Applied behavior analysis is a growing field, with many colleges and universities offering
degrees at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. A person graduating from one of these
programs may act as a consultant* to schools or other institutions or may set up a private prac-
tice. Typical uses for ABA are treating children with disorders, training animals, and develop-
ing effective teaching methods for children and adults of all levels of mental abilities (Baer et
al., 1968; Du et al., 2015; Klein & Kemper, 2016; Mohammadzaheri et al., 2015).
An example of how ABA can be used is found in the use of shaping to mold desir-
able, socially acceptable behavior in individuals with autism. Autism is a disorder in
which the person has great difficulty in communicating with others, often refusing to
look at another person. People who have autism may also fail to learn to speak at all, and
they normally do not like to be touched. to Learning Objective 8.7. This specific
application of ABA can be said to have begun with the work of Dr. O. Ivar Lovaas (1964)
and his associates, although the basic general techniques are those first outlined by Skin-
ner. Lovaas used small pieces of candy as reinforcers to teach social skills and language
to children with autism. Other techniques for modifying responses have been developed
so that even biological responses that are normally considered involuntary such as blood
applied behavior analysis (ABA)
modern term for a form of functional
analysis and behavior modification
that uses a variety of behavioral tech-
niques to mold a desired behavior or
response. *consultant: someone who offers expert advice or services.