Memory 233names of people you meet at a party, but as more names are added, they displace the
older names. A better way to remember a person’s name is to associate the name with
something about the person’s appearance, a process that may help move the name from
STM into more permanent storage. This more permanent storage is the process of long-
term memory, which is the topic of the next section.
Wo r k i n g m e m o r y i s a n i m p o r t a n t a re a o f re s e a rc h a n d h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r u n d e r s t a n d-
ing not only intelligence but also learning and attention disorders such as attention-defi-
cit/hyperactivity disorder, and various dementia-related memory problems (Alloway et
al., 2009; Kensinger et al., 2003; Martinussen et al., 2005). Researchers have trained mice
to improve their working memory and found that the mice become more intelligent with
improved working memory (e.g., Light et al., 2010). Other researchers have found that work-
ing memory is helpful in solving mathematical problems but may actually hurt the ability to
solve creative problems (Wiley & Jarosz, 2012). Creative problem solving seems to benefit
from a less focused approach than the focused attention taking place in working memory.
Long-Term Memory
6.5 Explain the process of long-term memory, including nondeclarative and
declarative forms.
The third stage of memory is long-term memory (LTM), the system into which all the
information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. In terms of capacity, LTM
seems to be unlimited for all practical purposes (Bahrick, 1984; Barnyard & Grayson,
1996). In fact, researchers now think the capacity of the human brain may be as much
as 10 times greater than previously estimated (Bartol et al., 2015). Think about it: Would
there ever really come a time when you could not fit one more piece of information into
your head? When you could learn nothing more? If humans lived much longer lives,
there might be a finite end to the capacity of LTM stores. But in practical terms, there is
always room for more information (in spite of what some students may believe).
DURATION As for duration, the name long term says it all. There is a relatively per-
manent physical change in the brain itself when a memory is formed. That means that
many of the memories people have stored away for a long, long time—even since
childhood—may still be there. That does not mean that people can always retrieve
those memories. The memories may be available but not accessible, meaning that they
are still there, but for various reasons (discussed later under the topic of forgetting)
people cannot “get to” them. It’s like knowing that there is a certain item on the back
of the top shelf of the kitchen cabinet but having no ladder or step stool to reach it. The
item is there (available), but you can’t get to it (not accessible).
“Long term” also does not mean that all memories are stored forever; our personal
memories are too numerous to be permanently retained, for example. Nor do we store
every single thing that has ever happened to us. We only store long-lasting memories of
events and concepts that are meaningful and important to us.
I once memorized a poem by repeating it over and over— that’s
maintenance rehearsal, right? Since I still remember most of the
poem, it must be in long-term memory. Is maintenance rehearsal a
good way to get information into long-term memory?Information that is rehearsed long enough may actually find its way into long-term
memory. After all, it’s how most people learned their Social Security number and the
letters of the alphabet (although people cheated a little on the latter by putting the alpha-
bet to music, which makes it easier to retrieve). Most people tend to learn poems and
the multiplication tables by maintenance rehearsal, otherwise known as rote learning.
long-term memory (LTM)
the system of memory into which all
the information is placed to be kept
more or less permanently.These students are rehearsing for a concert.
They will use maintenance rehearsal
(repeating the musical passages over and
over) until they can play their parts perfectly.
The movements of their fingers upon their
instruments will be stored in long-term
memory. How is this kind of long-term
memory different from something like the
memorized lines of one’s part in a play?