240 CHAPTER 6
to get information into LTM is that saying something over and over gives only one
kind of retrieval cue, the sound of the word or phrase. When people try to remem-
ber a piece of information by thinking of what it means and how it fits in with what
they already know, they are giving themselves multiple cues for meaning in addition
to sound. The more retrieval cues stored with a piece of information, the easier the
retrieval of that information will be (Karpicke, 2012; Pyc et al., 2014; Roediger, 2000;
Roediger & Guynn, 1996), which is the primary reason elaborative rehearsal enhances
the formation of a memory. to Learning Objective PIA.6. Furthermore, we are
not always aware of what cues are being associated. Remember from the discussion of
nondeclarative memory, priming can occur where experience with information or con-
cepts can improve later performance. And in many situations, we are not aware the
improvement has taken place.
Although most people would assume that cues for retrieval would have to be
directly related to the concepts being studied, the fact is that almost anything in one’s
surroundings is capable of becoming a cue. If you usually watch a particular television
show while eating peanuts, for example, the next time you eat peanuts you might find
yourself thinking of the show you were watching. This connection between surround-
ings and remembered information is called encoding specificity.
ENCODING SPECIFICITY: CONTEXT EFFECTS ON MEMORY RETRIEVAL Have you ever
had to take a test in a different classroom than the one in which you learned the mate-
rial being tested? Do you think that your performance on that test was hurt by being
in a different physical context? Researchers have found strong evidence for the concept
of encoding specificity, the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be
improved if retrieval conditions are similar to the conditions under which the informa-
tion was encoded (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). These conditions, or cues, can be inter-
nal or external. Context-dependent learning may refer to the physical surroundings a
person is in when they are learning specific information. For example, encoding speci-
ficity would predict that the best place to take one’s chemistry test is in the same room
in which you learned the material. Also, it’s very common to walk into a room and
know that there was something you wanted, but in order to remember it, you have to
go back to the room you started in to use your surroundings as a cue for remembering.
In one study, researchers had students who were learning to scuba dive in a pool
also learn lists of words while they were either out of the pool or in the pool under the
water (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Subjects were then asked to remember the two lists in
each of the two conditions. Words that were learned while out of the pool were remem-
bered significantly better when the subjects were out of the pool, and words that were
learned underwater were more easily retrieved if the subjects were underwater while
trying to remember.ENCODING SPECIFICITY: STATE-DEPENDENT LEARNING Physical surroundings
at the time of encoding a memory are not the only kinds of cues that can help in
retrieval. In another form of encoding specificity called state-dependent learning,
memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be
easier to remember while in a similar state. For example, when you are fighting with
someone, it’s much easier to remember all of the bad things that person has done than
to remember the good times. In one study (Eich & Metcalfe, 1989), researchers had
subjects try to remember words that they had read while listening to music. Subjects
read one list of words while listening to sad music (influencing their mood to be sad)
and another list of words while listening to happy music. When it came time to recall
the lists, the researchers again manipulated the mood of the subjects. The words
that were read while subjects were in a happy mood were remembered better if the
manipulated mood was also happy but far less well if the mood was sad. The reverse
was also true.encoding specificity
the tendency for memory of infor-
mation to be improved if related
information (such as surroundings or
physiological state) that is available
when the memory is first formed is
also available when the memory is
being retrieved.
The results of the Godden and Baddeley
(1975) study indicated the retrieval of words
learned while underwater was higher when the
retrieval also took place underwater. Similarly,
words learned while out of water (on land)
were retrieved at a higher rate out of the water.
When this bride and groom dance together
later on in their marriage, they will be able
to recall this moment at their wedding and
the happiness they felt at that time. State-
dependent learning makes it easier for
people to recall information stored while in
a particular emotional state (such as the
happiness of this couple) if the recall occurs
in a similar emotional state.