Development across the Life Span 335( Brazelton, 1992; Heinicke et al., 2000). Erik Erikson, a psychodynamic theorist who
emphasized the importance of social relationships in the development of personality,
would certainly disagree with letting a baby “cry it out,” although allowing an infant
who has been fed, changed, burped, and checked to cry on occasion will not damage
attachment.
Erikson, who trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst but became convinced that social
interactions were more important in development than Freud’s emphasis on sexual
development, believed that development occurred in a series of eight stages, with the
first four of these stages occurring in infancy and childhood ( Erikson, 1950; Erikson &
Erikson, 1997). (Freud’s stages of psychosexual development are covered in detail in a
later chapter.) to Learning Objective 13.2. Each of Erikson’s stages is an emo-
tional crisis, or a kind of turning point, in personality, and the crisis in each stage must be
successfully met for normal, healthy psychological development.
Erikson focused on the relationship of the infant and the child to significant oth-
ers in the immediate surroundings—parents and then later teachers and even peers.
Ta b l e 8. 4 summarizes the conflict in each of Erikson’s eight stages and some of the
implications for future development (Erikson, 1950; Erikson & Erikson, 1997). For now,
look at the first four stages in particular.
Table 8. 4 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Stage Developmental Crisis Successful Dealing With Crisis Unsuccessful Dealing With Crisis- Infant
Birth to 1 year
old
Trust Versus Mistrust: Infants learn a
basic sense of trust dependent upon how
their needs are met.If babies’ needs for food, comfort,
and affection are met, they develop
a sense of trust in people and expect
those needs to be met in future.If babies’ needs for food, comfort, and
affection are not met, they develop a
sense of mistrust and do not expect
their needs to be met in future.- Toddler
1 to 3 years old
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt:
Toddlers begin to understand that they
can control their own actions.Toddlers who are successful in
controlling their own actions develop
independence.Toddlers whose attempts at being
independent are blocked develop a
sense of self-doubt and shame for failing.- Preschool
Age
3 to 5 years old
Initiative Versus Guilt: Preschool children
learn to take responsibility for their own
behavior as they develop self-control.If preschoolers succeed in
controlling their reactions and
behavior, they feel capable and
develop a sense of initiative.If preschoolers fail in controlling their
reactions and behavior, they feel
irresponsible and anxious and develop
a sense of guilt.- Elementary
School Age
5 to 12 years old
Industry Versus Inferiority: The school-
aged child must learn new skills in both
the academic world and the social world.
They compare themselves to others to
measure their success or failure.When children feel they have
succeeded at learning these skills,
they develop a sense of industry,
making them feel competent and
improving their self-esteem.When children fail or feel that they
have failed in learning these skills, they
feel inferior when compared to others.- Adolescence
13 to early 20s
Identity Versus Role Confusion:
Adolescents must decide who they are,
what they believe, and what they want to
be as an adult.Adolescents who are able to define
their values, goals, and beliefs will
develop a stable sense of identity.Adolescents who are unable to define
themselves remain confused and may
isolate themselves from others or try
to be like everyone else instead of
themselves.- Early
Adulthood
20s and 30s
Intimacy Versus Isolation: Young adults
face the task of finding a person with
whom they can share their identity in an
ongoing, close, personal relationship.Young adults who successfully find
someone and share their identities
will have a fulfilling relationship
founded on psychological intimacy.Young adults who are unable to find
someone (often because they do not
yet have a stable identity to share)
will isolate themselves and may
experience loneliness, even when
involved in shallow relationships with
others.- Middle
Adulthood
40s and 50s
Generativity Versus Stagnation: The
focus of this task is to find a way to be
a creative, productive person who is
nurturing the next generation.Adults who are able to focus on the
next generation will be productive
and creative, leaving a legacy for the
future.Adults who are unable to focus outside
themselves will remain stagnated, self-
centered, and feeling that they have
not made a difference.- Late
Adulthood
60s and beyond
Ego Integrity Versus Despair: The task
in this stage involves coming to terms
with the end of life, reaching a sense of
wholeness and acceptance of life as it
has been.Older adults who are able to come
to terms with their lives, things they
have done and left undone, and able
to “let go” of regrets will have a sense
of completion and will see death as
simply the last stage of a full life.Older adults who have not been able
to achieve identity or intimacy or
generativity, who cannot let go of their
regrets, will feel a sense of having
left things too late and see death as
coming too soon.
Derived from Erikson, 1950.Interactive