Psychology2016

Motivation and Emotion 361

rewards or incentives we get when we act, such as eating food even when we are
not hungry just because it tastes so good—an example of learned behavior.

AROUSAL THEORY In arousal theory, people are said to have an optimal (best
or ideal) level of tension. Task performances, for example, may suffer if the level
of arousal is too high (such as severe test anxiety) or even if the level of arousal is
too low (such as boredom). For many kinds of tasks, a moderate level of arousal
seems to be best. This relationship between task performance and arousal has
been explained by the Yerkes-Dodson law (Teigen, 1994; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908),
although Yerkes and Dodson formulated the law referring to stimulus intensity,
not arousal level (Winton, 1987).
Of special interest to both sports psychologists and social psychologists, this
arousal effect appears to be modified by the difficulty level of the task: Easy tasks
demand a somewhat “high–moderate” level for optimal performance, whereas dif-
ficult tasks require a “low–moderate” level. Figure 9. 2 shows this relationship in
graphic form. A sports psychologist might work with an athlete to help them get
“in the zone,” where they are in that specific zone of arousal (not too low and not
too high) and state of mental focus so as to maximize their athletic skills and perfor-
mance. Social psychologists also examine the effect of the presence of other people on
the facilitation or impairment of an individual’s performance. to Learning
Objective 12.1. For example, imagine someone in a classroom speaking to a classmate
seated nearby. The act of speaking directly to another person is a fairly easy task for many
people and is accomplished without any difficulty or errors. However, ask that same indi-
vidual to stand, turn, and address the entire classroom of students, and all of a sudden his
or her arousal level spikes; many individuals in a similar situation may find themselves
unable to put words together well enough to form coherent sentences or to pronounce
words correctly—in essence, they may become “tongue-tied,” all because their arousal
level has gotten too high.
Maintaining an optimal level of arousal, then, may involve reducing tension or cre-
ating it (Hebb, 1955). For example, husbands or wives who are underaroused may pick a
fight with their spouse. Students who experience test anxiety (a high level of arousal) may
seek out ways to reduce that anxiety to improve their test performance. Students who
are not anxious at all may not be motivated to study well, thus lowering their test perfor-
mance. Many arousal theorists believe that the optimal level of arousal for most people
under normal circumstances is somewhere in the middle, neither too high nor too low.

If people are supposed to be seeking a level of arousal

somewhere around the middle, why do some people love to do

things like bungee-jumping?

Even though the average person might require a moderate level of arousal to feel content,
there are some people who need less arousal and some who need more. The person who
needs more arousal is called a sensation seeker (Lauriola et al., 2014; Zuckerman, 1979,
1994). Sensation seekers seem to need more complex and varied sensory experiences
than do other people. The need does not always have to involve danger. For example,
students who travel to other countries to study tend to score higher on scales of sensation
seeking than do students who stay at home (Schroth & McCormack, 2000). Sensation
seeking may be related to temperament. to Learning Objective 8.8. Table 9.1 has
some sample items from a typical sensation-seeking scale.
In one study (Putnam & Stifter, 2002), researchers found evidence of “ sensation-seeking”
behavior in children as young as age 2. In this study, 90 children were studied at the ages
of 6, 12, 24, and 25 months. In a test of the youngest participants, the babies were shown
two sets of toys: a block, a plate, and a cup; or a flashing light, a toy beeper, and a wind-up

arousal theory

theory of motivation in which people

are said to have an optimal (best or

ideal) level of tension that they seek to

maintain by increasing or decreasing

stimulation.

Yerkes-Dodson law

law stating that when tasks are sim-

ple, a higher level of arousal leads to

better performance; when tasks are

difficult, lower levels of arousal lead to

better performance.

Figure 9.2 Arousal and Performance

The optimal level of arousal for task performance

depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally per-

form easy tasks well if we are at a high–moderate level

of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if

we are at a low–moderate level.

High

Low

Arousal Level

High

Performance

Low

Difficult task Easy task

sensation seeker

someone who needs more arousal

than the average person.

Does this look fun? If so, you may score

relatively higher in sensation seeking.