Psychology2016

364 CHAPTER 9

People move up the pyramid as they go through life, gaining wisdom and the knowl-

edge of how to handle many different situations. But a shift in life’s circumstances can result in

a shift down to a lower need. Moving up and down and then back up can occur frequently—

even from one hour to the next. Times in a person’s life in which self-actualization is achieved,

at least temporarily, are called peak experiences. For Maslow, the process of growth and

self-actualization is the striving to make peak experiences happen again and again.

Does this theory apply universally?

Maslow’s theory has had a powerful influence on the field of management (Heil et al., 1998)

and has spawned new ideas and concepts of what might be an appropriate revised hierar-

chy. to Learning Objective B.7. In spite of this influence, Maslow’s theory is not

without its critics. There are several problems that others have highlighted, and the most

serious is that there is little scientific support (Drenth et al., 1984). Like Sigmund Freud,

Maslow developed his theory based on his personal observations of people rather than any

empirically gathered observations or research. Although many people report that while

they were starving, they could think of nothing but food, there is anecdotal evidence in the

lives of many people, some of them quite well known, that the lower needs do not have

to be satisfied before moving on to a higher need (Drenth et al., 1984). For example, artists

and scientists throughout history have been known to deny their own physical needs while

producing great works (a self-actualization need).

Maslow’s work was also based on his studies of Americans. Cross-cultural

research suggests that the order of needs on the hierarchy does not always hold true

for other cultures, particularly those cultures with a stronger tendency than the culture

In the movie The Martian, Matt Damon’s
character is accidentally stranded on Mars
and must find a way to survive for 4 years.
His most important concern is how to
produce enough food to survive that long,
but he also makes recordings, needing to
feel that someone might one day hear him.
The need for companionship is a strong one
once physical needs are met.

peak experiences
according to Maslow, times in a
person’s life during which self-
actualization is temporarily achieved.

Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs,

before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.