Psychology2016

366 CHAPTER 9

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instinct

drive reduction

intrinsic: actions are rewarding or satisfying in and of themselves

extrinsic: actions are performed because they lead to some sort of external outcome

biologically determined/innate patterns of behavior

old approach: instincts are mainly descriptions, not explanations;

idea that some behavior is hereditary remains an important focus

psychological needs have

been highlighted in some

theories (e.g., McClelland)

Dweck suggests that the need for achievement

is linked to a person’s view of self (fixed or

changeable) and locus of control

need: requirement for something essential for survival; existence of need leads to

psychological tension (drive) and physical arousal; satisfying need reduces drive/tension

primary drives involve survival needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and maintaining homeostasis

acquired (secondary) drives are learned through experience or conditioning

(e.g., money, social approval)

psychological needs

need for achievement (nAch)

need for affiliation (nAff)

need for power (nPow)

types

Approaches to Understanding Motivation

(process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met)

arousal theory suggests people have an optimal

level of tension that they work to maintain

a moderate level is most commonly sought, but that level

can range from low to high (sensation seeking)

arousal

need for stimulation

incentive based in part on principles of learning

things that attract or lure people

into action, most often due to

rewarding properties

other modifications differ in number of levels

and areas of focus

self-determination theory: similar to Maslow’s hierarchy;

three universal needs are autonomy, competence, and relatedness

humanistic

based primarily on Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs; primary,

basic needs must be met before

higher levels can be met (see Fig. 9.3)

Concept Map L.O. 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5

Interactive

There are usually elements of both intrinsic and extrinsic motives in many of the things

people do. Most teachers, for example, work for money to pay bills (the extrinsic

motive) but may also feel that they are helping young children become better adults in

the future, which makes the teachers feel good about themselves (the intrinsic motive).

How universal are these three needs? Some cultures, such as the United States and

Great Britain, are individualistic, stressing the needs of the individual over the group, inde-

pendence, and self-reliance. Other cultures are collectivistic, such as those in Japan and

China, and stress strong social ties, interdependence, and cooperation. Cross- cultural

research indicates that even across such different cultures, the needs for autonomy, mastery,

and belongingness are of similar importance (Chirkov, 2009; Chirkov et al., 2011; Ryan et

al., 1999; Sheldon, 2012). The APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking feature

looks at the effects of praise, a typical form of motivating achievement, across cultures.