400 CHAPTER 10
Of course, parents are not the only gender-role models available to children. In
addition to older brothers and sisters, family friends, teachers, and peers, children are
exposed to male and female behavior on television and in other media. In fact, televi-
sion, movies, video games, and children’s books are often filled with very traditional
male and female roles. In many books, doctors are males and nurses are female far more
often than the other way around, for example. Although some children’s books, televi-
sion programs, and video games make a genuine effort to present males and females in
nontypical occupations, there are far more that maintain traditional roles for men and
women (Ivory, 2006; Miller & Summers, 2007; Wohn, 2011; Zosuls et al., 2011).
GENDER SCHEMA THEORY A theory of gender-role development that combines social
learning theory with cognitive development is called gender schema theory (Bem, 1987,
1993). In this theory based on the Piagetian concept of schemes ( to Learning
Objective 8.7), children develop a schema, or mental pattern, for being male or female in
much the same way that they develop schemas for other concepts such as “dog,” “bird,”
and “big.” As their brains mature, they become capable of distinguishing among various
concepts. For example, a “dog” might at first be anything with four legs and a tail, but
as a child encounters dogs and other kinds of animals and is given instruction, “dog”
becomes more specific and the schema for “dog” becomes well defined.
In a similar manner, children develop a concept for “boy” and “girl.” Once that
schema is in place, children can identify themselves as “boy” or “girl” and will notice other
members of that schema. They notice the behavior of other “boys” or “girls” and imitate
that behavior. They play with their parents and pick up on differences in the behavior of
fathers and mothers (Lindsey et al., 2010). Rather than being simple imitation and reinforce-
ment, as in social learning theory, children acquire their gender-role behavior by organiz-
ing that behavior around the schema of “boy” or “girl.” Evidence for this theory includes
the finding that infants can discriminate between male and female faces and voices before
age 1 (Martin, 2000), a sign that infants are already organizing the world into those two
concepts, and in the sudden appearance rigidity that occurs in the preschool years, when
boys may refuse to wear anything resembling pink and girls may only want to wear frilly
dresses as they add those concepts to their gender schema (Halim et al., 2014).
GENDER STEREOTYPING A stereotype is a concept that can be held about a person or
group of people that is based on very superficial characteristics. A gender stereotype
is a concept about males or females that assigns various characteristics to them on the
basis of nothing more than being male or female.
The male gender stereotype generally includes the following characteristics:
aggressive, logical, decisive, unemotional, insensitive, nonnurturing, impatient, and
mechanically talented. The female stereotype typically includes these characteristics:
illogical, changeable, emotional, sensitive, naturally nurturing, patient, and all thumbs
when it comes to understanding machines. Notice that each of these stereotypes has both
positive and negative characteristics, and also that all are based on society’s opinions
about men and women rather than actual biological differences.
Some researchers believe that accepting stereotyping of any kind, even positive
stereotyping, can lead to sexism, or prejudice about males and females. In fact, some
researchers (Glick & Fiske, 2001; Hammond et al., 2016) claim that acceptance of positive
stereotypes can lead to benevolent sexism, prejudice that is more socially acceptable but
still leads to men and women being treated unequally. Not all men are mechanically tal-
ented, nor are all women naturally nurturing, for example. A positive stereotype for men
is that they are strong and protective of women, implying that women are weak and need
protection, just as the positive female stereotype of natural nurturance of children implies
that males cannot be nurturing. Such stereotypes, although somewhat “flattering” for the
sex about whom they are held, can be harmful to the other sex. Any stereotype, whether
negative or positive, continues to emphasize inequality between the genders and can lead
to an increase in discrimination— definitely a harmful process.What are some of the ways in which this
father may influence his sons’ gender
identities as they grow up?
gender schema theory
theory of gender identity acquisition in
which a child develoRs a mental Rattern
or schema, for being male or female and
then organizes observed and learned
behavior around that schema.
stereotype
a set of characteristics that people
believe is shared by all members of a
particular social category; a concept
held about a person or group of people
that is based on superficial, irrelevant
characteristics.
gender stereotype
a concept held about a person or group
of people that is based on being male
or female.
benevolent sexism
acceptance of positive stereotypes
of males and females that leads to
unequal treatment.
sexism
prejudice about males and/or females
leading to unequal treatment.