424 CHAPTER 11
In one study, nearly 8 percent of the people living in the area near the attacks devel-
oped a severe stress disorder, and nearly 10 percent reported symptoms of depression
even as late as 2 months after the attack (Galea et al., 2002). A study done 4 years later
found a nearly 14 percent increase in stress disorders as well as continued persistence
of previously diagnosed stress disorders (Pollack et al., 2006). to Learning
Objective 14.5. Other examples of catastrophes are the devastation caused by Hurricane
Katrina on August 29, 2005, Hurricane (“Superstorm”) Sandy on October 22–29, 2012,
and in 2015, the earthquake that hit Nepal and the typhoon that hit China and the
Philippines (Kessler et al., 2006; Stewart, 2012; Swenson & Marshall, 2005).
Some research suggests that the impact of catastrophic events can affect not only
the people who experience the events directly but also any unborn children whose moth-
ers are involved in the events. The prenatal stress can not only have short-term conse-
quences such as premature birth but also long-term effects such as lower-than-normal
intelligence levels and poor health behavior in adult life (Cao-Lei et al., 2014; Eriksson
et al., 2014; Raposa et al., 2014; Witt et al., 2014).
MAJOR LIFE CHANGES Thankfully, most people do not have to face the extreme stress
of a catastrophe. But stress is present even in relatively ordinary life experiences and
does not have to come from only negative events, such as job loss. Sometimes there
are big events, such as marriage or going to college, that also require a person to make
adjustments and changes—and adjustments and changes are really the core of stress,
according to early researchers in the field (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).
THE SOCIAL READJUSTMENT RATING SCALE (SRRS) Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe
(1967) believed that any life event that required people to change, adapt, or adjust their
lifestyles would result in stress. Like Selye, they assumed that both negative events (such
as getting fired) and positive events (such as getting a promotion) demand that a person
adjust in some way, and so both kinds of events are associated with stress. Using a sample
of nearly 400 people, Holmes and Rahe devised a scale to measure the amount of stress in
a person’s life by having that person add up the total “life change units” associated with
each major event in their Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS; see Ta b l e 11. 1 ).
When an individual adds up the points for each event that has happened to him
or her within the past 12 months (and counting points for repeat events as well), the
resulting score can provide a good estimate of the degree of stress being experienced by
that person. The researchers found that certain ranges of scores on the SRRS could be
associated with increased risk of illness or accidents. (Note: Table 11.1 is not a complete
listing of the original 43 events and associated life change units and should not be used to
calculate a stress “score”! If you would like to calculate your SRRS score, try this free Web
site: http://www.stresstips.com/lifeevents.htm.)
The risk of illness or accidents increases as the score increases. If a person’s score is
300 or above, that person has a very high chance of becoming ill or having an accident in
the near future (Holmes & Masuda, 1973). Illness includes not only physical conditions
such as high blood pressure, ulcers, or migraine headaches but mental illness as well. In
one study, researchers found that stressful life events of the kind listed in the SRRS were
excellent predictors of the onset of episodes of major depression (Kendler & Prescott, 1999).
The SRRS was later revised (Miller & Rahe, 1997) to reflect changes in the ratings
of the events in the 30 intervening years. Miller and Rahe found that overall stress asso-
ciated with many of the items on the original list had increased by about 45 percent from
the original 1967 ratings, citing changes in such issues as gender roles, economics, and
social norms as possible reasons.
How can stress cause a person to have an accident? Many studies conducted on
the relationship between stress and accidents in the workplace have shown that people
under a lot of stress tend to be more distracted and less cautious and, therefore, place
themselves at a greater risk for having an accident (Hansen, 1988; Sherry et al., 2003).Social Readjustment Rating
5EaNG (5445)
assessment that measures the
amount of stress in a Rersonos life over
a 1-year period resulting from major
life events.