528 CHAPTER 13
nonshared environments (Hershberger et al., 1995; Loehlin et al., 1985; Loehlin et al.,
1998). Through this kind of study, for example, a genetic basis has been suggested for
shyness (Plomin et al., 1988) and aggressiveness (Brennan et al., 1997).Current Findings on the Heritability of Personality
- 13 Summarize current research on the heritability of personality.
One important aspect of genetic studies is the concept of heritability, or how much some
trait within a population can be attributed to genetic influences, and the extent individ-
ual genetic variation impacts differences in observed behavior. to Learning
Objectives 7.10 and 8.3. Several studies have found that the five personality factors of
the five-factor model have nearly a 50 percent rate of heritability across several cultures
(Bouchard, 1994; Herbst et al., 2000; Jang et al., 1996; Loehlin, 1992; Loehlin et al., 1998).
Personality’s relationship to psychopathology is also being investigated via genetic tech-
niques (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). Together with the results of the Minnesota twin study
and other research (Lubinski, 2000; Lykken & Tellegen, 1996; Plomin, 1994), the studies of
genetics and personality seem to indicate that variations in personality traits are about 25
to 50 percent inherited (Jang et al., 1998). This also means that environmental influences
apparently account for about half of the variation in personality traits as well.
Although the five factors have been found across several cultures, this does not
mean that different cultures do not have an impact on personality. For more on this topic,
see the Classic Studies in Psychology section that follows.
Classic Studies in Psychology
Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural
Personality
In the early 1980s, organizational management specialist Geert Hofstede conducted a
massive study into the work-related values of employees of IBM, a multinational corpora-
tion (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede et al., 2002). The study surveyed workers in 64 countries
across the world. Hofstede analyzed the data collected from this survey and found four
basic dimensions of personality along which cultures differed.- Individualism/collectivism: Individualistic cultures tend to have loose ties between
individuals, with people tending to look after themselves and their immediate families
only. Members of such cultures have friends based on shared activities and interests
and may belong to many different loosely organized social groups. Autonomy,* change,
youth, security of the individual, and equality are all highly valued. In contrast, in a col-
lectivistic culture, people are from birth deeply tied into very strong in-groups, typically
extended families that include grandparents, aunts and uncles, and cousins. Loyalty to
the family is highly stressed, and the care of the family is placed before the care of the
individual. Group membership is limited to only a few permanent groups that have tre-
mendous influence over the individual. The values of this kind of culture are duty, order,
tradition, respect for the elderly, group security, and respect for the group status and
hierarchy.** Whereas the United States and Great Britain are examples of individualistic
cultures, Japan, China, Korea, Mexico, and Central America are much more collectivistic. - Power distance: This dimension refers to the degree to which the less powerful
members of a culture accept and even expect that the power within the culture is held
in the hands of a select few rather than being more evenly distributed. Countries such
*autonomy: the quality of being self-directed or self-controlled.
**hierarchy: in this sense, a body of persons in authority over others.