Psychological Therapies 591Freud also made use of two techniques to try to reveal the repressed information in
his patients’ unconscious minds. These techniques were the interpretation of dreams and
allowing patients to talk freely about anything that came to mind.
DREAM INTERPRETATION Dream interpretation, or the analysis of the elements within
a patient’s reported dream, formed a large part of Freud’s psychoanalytic method.
to Learning Objective 4.7. Freud believed that repressed material often surfaced
in dreams, although in symbolic form. The manifest content of the dream was the actual
dream and its events, but the latent content was the hidden, symbolic meaning of those
events that would, if correctly interpreted, reveal the unconscious conflicts that were cre-
ating the nervous disorder (Freud, 1900).
FREE ASSOCIATION The other technique for revealing the unconscious mind was
a method originally devised by Freud’s coworker, Josef Breuer (Breuer & Freud,
1895). Breuer encouraged his patients to freely say whatever came into their minds
without fear of being negatively evaluated or condemned. As the patients talked,
they began to reveal things that were loosely associated with their flow of ideas,
often revealing what Breuer felt were hidden, unconscious concerns. Freud adopted
this method of free association, believing that repressed impulses and other mate-
rial were trying to “break free” into consciousness and would eventually surface
using this technique.
RESISTANCE AND TRANSFERENCE Other components of Freud’s original psychoanalytic
method were resistance (the point at which the patient becomes unwilling to talk about
certain topics) and transference (when the therapist becomes a symbol of a parental
authority figure from the past). Therapists can also experience countertransference, in
which the therapist has a transference reaction to the patient. This reaction might not
always be to the benefit of the patient. As in all of the therapeutic approaches, peer
and professional supervision helps therapists recognize potential issues in providing
effective therapy.
EVALUATION OF PSYCHOANALYSIS AND PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES Freud’s
original theory, on which he based his interpretations of his patients’ revelations,
has been criticized as having several flaws, which were discussed in Chapter
Thirteen. These included the lack of scientific research to support his claims, his
unwillingness to believe some of the things revealed by his patients when those
revelations did not fit into his view of the world, and his almost obsessive need to
assume that problems with sex and sexuality were at the heart of nearly every ner-
vous disorder.
Few psychoanalysts today still use Freud’s original methods, which could take years
to produce results. The couch is gone, and the client (a term used to support the active role
of the person seeking help and to avoid implying “sickness,” as might result when using
the term patient) may sit face to face with the therapist. The client may also stand or walk
about. Rather than remaining quiet until the client says something revealing, the modern
psychoanalyst is far more directive, asking questions, suggesting helpful behavior, and
giving opinions and interpretations earlier in the relationship, which helps speed up the
therapeutic process. Today’s psychoanalysts also focus less on the id as the motivator of
behavior, instead looking more at the ego or sense of self as the motivating force behind
all actions, and some more on basic relationship issues, including the relationship between
the therapist and client (McWilliams, 2016; Prochaska & Norcross, 2014). Some psycho-
analysts also focus on the process of transference more than on other typical aspects of
traditional psychoanalysis, leading to the more general method called psychodynamic
therapy. Psychodynamic therapy is typically shorter in duration than traditional psycho-
analysis. Watch the video Psychodynamic Therapy to learn more about the history and prac-
tice of this therapy.
latent content
the symbolic or hidden meaning of
dreams.free association
psychoanalytic technique in which a
patient was encouraged to talk about
anything that came to mind without
fear of negative evaluations.resistance
occurring when a patient becomes
reluctant to talk about a certain topic,
by either changing the subject or
becoming silent.transference
in psychoanalysis, the tendency for a
patient or client to project positive or
negative feelings for important people
from the past onto the therapist.psychodynamic therapy
a newer and more general term for
therapies based on psychoanalysis
with an emphasis on transference,
shorter treatment times, and a more
direct therapeutic approach.directive
therapy in which the therapist actively
gives interpretations of a client’s state-
ments and may suggest certain behav-
ior or actions.