G-16 GLOSSARY
top-down processing the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individ-
ual features into a unified whole.
trait a consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving.
trait–situation interaction the assumption that the particular circumstances
of any given situation will influence the way in which a trait is expressed.
trait theories theories that endeavor to describe the characteristics that
make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior.
transduction the process of converting outside stimuli, such as light, into
neural activity.
transference in psychoanalysis, the tendency for a patient or client to proj-
ect positive or negative feelings for important people from the past onto
the therapist.
trial and error (mechanical solution) problem-solving method in which
one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.
triarchic theory of intelligence Sternberg’s theory that there are three kinds
of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
trichromatic theory theory of color vision that proposes three types of
cones: red, blue, and green.
t-test type of inferential statistical analysis typically used when two means
are compared to see if they are significantly different.
Type 2 diabetes disease typically occurring in middle adulthood when the
body either becomes resistant to the effects of insulin or can no longer
secrete enough insulin to maintain normal glucose levels.
Type A personality person who is ambitious, time conscious, extremely
hardworking, and tends to have high levels of hostility and anger as well
as being easily annoyed.
Type B personality person who is relaxed and laid back, less driven and
competitive than Type A, and slow to anger.
Type C personality pleasant but repressed person, who tends to internalize
his or her anger and anxiety and who finds expressing emotions difficult.
unconditional positive regard referring to the warmth, respect, and
accepting atmosphere created by the therapist for the client in person-
centered therapy; positive regard that is given without conditions or
strings attached.
unconditioned response (UCR) in classical conditioning, an involun-
tary and unlearned response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned
stimulus.
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in classical conditioning, a naturally occur-
ring stimulus that leads to an involuntary and unlearned response.
unconscious mind level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories,
and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought
into consciousness.
uterus the womb in which the baby grows during pregnancy.vagina the tube that leads from the outside of a female’s body to the open-
ing of the womb.
validity the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure.
variable interval schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in
which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes
possible is different for each trial or event.
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in
which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for
each trial or event.
vestibular sense the awareness of the balance, position, and movement of
the head and body through space in relation to gravity’s pull.
vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of an involuntary response or
emotion by watching the reaction of another person.
visual accommodation the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye
focuses on objects that are far away or close.
volley principle theory of pitch that states that frequencies from about 400
Hz to 4,000 Hz cause the hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley
pattern, or take turns in firing.
waking consciousness state in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are
clear and organized and the person feels alert.
weight set point the particular level of weight that the body tries to
maintain.
Wernicke’s aphasia condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area,
causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce mean-
ingful language.
withdrawal physical symptoms that can include nausea, pain, tremors,
crankiness, and high blood pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive
drug in the body systems.
working memory an active system that processes the information in short-
term memory.
Yerkes-Dodson law law stating that when tasks are simple, a higher level
of arousal leads to better performance; when tasks are difficult, lower lev-
els of arousal lead to better performance.
zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky’s concept of the difference
between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the
help of a teacher.
z score a statistical measure that indicates how far away from the mean a
particular score is in terms of the number of standard deviations that exist
between the mean and that score.
zygote cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm.Z03_CICC7961_05_SE_GLOS.indd 16 9/3/16 12:59 AM