94 International Relations Theory of War
Multipolarity was the factor that led the winning powers of the First
World War to allow Germany to rearm. Because of the multiple players
that acted in the system, there was no single party—as is the case in uni-
polar systems, or two parties, as in the case in bipolar systems—to act to
prevent Germany’s offensive intentions. Multipolarity forced the players
to act toward expansion, such as Germany’s actions, and forced the other
players not to risk any action to prevent Germany’s offensive actions. The
British aspiration for Anglo-American cooperation to maintain the world
order collapsed after the United States adopted an isolationism policy
and abstained from active international involvement. Britain and France
employed conflicting strategies toward Germany that reflected their aspi-
rations: France wanted to prevent Germany’s return to the international
system and revival, whereas Britain preferred to preserve the new bal-
ance of power by encouraging Germany’s rearmament and recovery,
to counteract the case of France or the Soviet Union acting to establish
their control of Europe. Reconciliation with Germany’s armament led to
an appeasement policy toward it that manifested in placating Germany
through concessions.
Hitler, who controlled Germany from the mid-1930s, declared that he
would not expand Germany’s territory by forceful means. He violated that
promise in March 1938 when he forced Austria to unite with Germany
(the Anschluss). Immediately afterward, he demanded the annexation of
Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, which was populated by Germans. The
fear of further German expansion of influence led to the convening of the
Munich Conference in September 1938, with the participation of Germa-
ny’s leader, Hitler, the prime minister of Britain, Chamberlain, and leaders
from France and Italy (Czechoslovakia was not invited). Because of the
misbelief that appeasement would stop Germany’s continued spread and
would lead to peace, Chamberlain and the others acquiesced to Hitler’s
demands.
Not only did appeasement not satisfy Germany, but it also increased its
appetite. Germany formed a new fascist coalition with Italy and Japan that
was intended to engender a change in the status quo in the world, which
was disappointed by Western liberalism and the Paris arrangement and
suffered economically following the influences of the Great Depression
of the 1930s, turning to militarism. The international climate that formed
as a result of Germany’s imperialist ambition of national expansion led
Japanese nationalism to a policy of imperialism and colonialism. Japan’s
invasions of Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937 followed Italy’s involve-
ment in Abyssinia in 1935 and in Albania in 1939.
After Germany occupied what was left of Czechoslovakia in March
1939, Britain and France formed an allegiance to defend the next expected
victim—Poland. They also commenced negotiations with Moscow, hoping
that they would be able to entice the Soviet Union to join the allegiance,