How the Research Is Empirically Examined 141
have challenged American security in the Gulf region.^195 The freedom of
action given to the United States because of the Soviet Union’s commit-
ment to Afghanistan allowed it to expand its influence around the world,
and it was what eventually forced the Soviet Union to abstain from con-
tinuing that adventure.
In addition to the systemic constraints that were applied to the Soviet
Union for maintaining the territorial status quo that was held before the
outbreak of the war, the American military and economic aid extended
to the rebels should also be focused on. After the Second World War, the
United States was already concerned by the Soviet influence in Afghani-
stan and made sure to protect its investments in neighboring Pakistan,
particularly the U-2 base in Peshawar, the capital of the northwestern bor-
der province.^196 Immediately after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan on
December 27, 1979, U.S. President Jimmy Carter reacted by sending arms
to the Afghan rebels. However, the partnership between the parties was
limited.^197 A few days after the invasion, President Carter signed an execu-
tive document approving the transfer of arms to the rebel forces (mujahe-
deen) to harass the Soviet forces in the country. The first shipment landed
in Pakistan on January 10, 1980, 14 days after the Soviet invasion. Carter
constantly increased the aid and President Ronald Reagan expanded it.
In the mid-1980s, the successes of the rebel forces, combined with more
aggressive Soviet tactics, led to significant expansion of the American
involvement.^198 The turning point of the war came in 1985. For the first
time, the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan had become likely. In
Washington, the aim changed from “making the Soviets pay the price” to
“making them withdraw.” National Security Resolution No. 166 of March
1985 authorized the United States to supply arms to the rebel forces for
forcing the Soviets out of Afghanistan. The U.S. involvement increased,
and in 1986 the first significant non-Soviet weapon was introduced to the
theater—Stinger surface-to-air missiles. This action removed the fig leaf of
America’s denial of involvement in the war. The use of the missiles, which
started in September 1986, had an immediate effect, particularly on Soviet
helicopters, which were an important component of intensifying the Soviet
actions against the rebels. The American aid to the Afghan program stood
at about $300 million during those years,^199 and in the whole period the
aid totaled at about $2 billion.^200 In the period after the Soviet withdrawal
from Afghanistan, the Americans reduced their aid to the rebel forces.
THE U.S.-AFGHAN WAR (2001)
Why Did the United States Invade Afghanistan?At 8:45 a.m., U.S. local time, on September 11, 2001, a hijacked American
airliner crashed into the northern tower of the World Trade Center in New
York. Eighteen minutes later, another hijacked jet crashed into the southern