8 ROBERT D. VAN VALIN, JR.
(2) a. Kewa (Papua-New Guinea; Franklin 1971)
- íra-paa-ru. "I finished cooking it."
COOk-PERF-lSG PAST (v-ASPECT-TENSE) - íra-waa-ru. "I cooked part of it." (=wasn't finished)
COOk-IMPF-lSG PAST (v-ASPECT-TENSE) - íra-a-na. "He cooked it (seen)."
cook-3sG PAST-seen (V-TENSE-EVID) - íra-a-ya. "He cooked it (hearsay, I didn't see it)."
cook-3sG PAST-unseen (V-TENSE-EVID) - íra-pa-niaa-ru. "I burned it downward (as a hill)."
cook-PERF-down-lsG PAST (V-ASPECT-DIR-TENSE) - íra-pa-saa-ru. "I burned it upward (as a hill)."
COOk-PERF-Up-lSG PAST (V-ASPECT-DIR-TENSE)
b. Turkish (Watters 1987) - Gel-mi§-0. "I gather that he has come."
come-iNFER-3sG (V-EVID) - Gel-mi§-ti-0. "He had come."
COme-PERF-PAST-3sG (v-ASPECT-TENSE) - Gel-iyor-du-m. "I was coming."
COme-PROG-PAST-lSG (v-ASPECT-TENSE) - Gel-emi-yebil-ir-im.
COme-NEG.ABLE-PSBL-AORIST-lsG
"I may be unable to come." (V-MOD-STATUS-TENSE) - Ev-e gel-ince, yat-ma-ya git-ti mi?
home-DAT come-suFF sleep-NMz-DAT go-PAST
"Having come home, did he go to sleep?" (V-TENSE-IF)
English - He may be leaving soon. (TENSE-STATUS-ASPECT-V)
- She had been able to see them, (TENSE-MODALITY-v)
- Will they have to be leaving? (IF-TENSE-MODALITY-ASPECT-V)
Nuclear operators: Aspect
Directionals (only those modifying orientation of action or event
without reference to participants)
Core operators: Directionals (only those expressing the orientation or motion of one
participant with reference to another participant or to the speaker)
Modality (root modals, e.g. ability, permission, obligation)
Internal (narrow scope) negation
Clausal operators: Status (epistemic modals, external negation)
Tense
Evidentials
Elocutionary Force [IF]