298 JULIA A. JOLLY
structure of the verb, inasmuch as look at, the activity version of see, does
not have a slot for an instrument (effector-theme) in semantic structure. In
a context such as (57), a volitional agent is identified (Greta); with marks an
effector which is not Actor (sword)', and no causality is postulated between
the fighting situation and the use of the sword.
(57) a. Greta fought the dragon with the sword.
b. [DO (Greta, [fight' (Greta, dragon)] & [use' (Greta,
sword)])]
In the absence of cause and specified contact, the sword is identified as an
effector-theme by the LS in (57b). The specification of a non-Actor effec
tor-theme requires the presence of an argument of volitional DO in LS;
thus, this non-predicative function of with occurs in activity contexts which
are -hvolitional. Notice also that use' can be invoked only where the instru
ment is not part of the causal chain. This would mean that it could not be
used as part of the left argument of CAUSE in an accomplishment struc
ture, as with hit, break or cut. The semantic content of predicative with is
specified as use' (x,y), where χ = effector (and potentially an agent) and y
= an effector-theme not in the argument structure of the verb. Use' is an
activity verb, and it is the prototype of the subclass of activity verbs includ
ing use, employ and utilize', the first argument is an effector and the second
argument an effector-theme.2.6.2 Non-predicative functions of with
As stated in section 1, with marks potential actors — effectors and agents
which Φ A — and potential undergoers — themes which Φ U. Thus, non-
predicative with marks arguments of the verb which might be expected to
function as A or U but do not.2.6.2.1 Effectors which Φ A
With occurs non-predicatively in accomplishment contexts such as sentence
(58).
(58) a. John hit the ball with the bat.
b. [do' (John)] CAUSE [do' (bat)]] CAUSE [BECOME be-at'
(ball, bat)]
With marks an effector-theme, bat. In a sentence such as John cut the bread
with a knife, the effector-theme is similarly marked by with.