- translation (including translation for the whole class, translation to sup-
port L2 learner, translation of subject-related terminology), - teacher’s response to language input of the pupil and
- combinations of concurrent two language use.
Table 7.3 attempts to define the classroom arrangements observed in this
study whilst Table 7.4 and Table 7.5 indicate the frequency of language
arrangements across these categories.
86% of lessons predominantly used a particular language arrangement,
whereas 14% used a combination of language arrangements. The boundary
between language-separation arrangements and more flexible language
arrangements is not straightforward. This study demonstrates that some
bilingual education programmes blend language-separation arrangements
with flexible language arrangements, for example, when Welsh is the
intended language of instruction but the teacher will translate to offer
instructional support for L2 pupils. Pupils often ‘use their entire linguistic
repertoires flexibly’ (García, 2009a: 304) to communicate with their peers
but focus on the intended language with the teacher.
From the perspective of flexible language arrangements utilized by
teachers and pupils in the survey a combination of translation and translan-
guaging arrangements were seen to be the most prevalent. Other purposive
use of two languages included lessons where there was either translation for
L2 learners, translation of bilingual subject-related terminology or a combi-
nation of concurrent two language use. Teachers’ response to language
input of the pupil included instances of random code-switching with teach-
ers responding to language use of pupils irrespective of the intended lan-
guage policy of the lesson (for example, the intended policy for instruction
by the teacher is English, but a pupil responds in Welsh and the teacher goes
on to give him feedback in Welsh).
Responsible code-switching include instances of instruction in a dual-
stream school with the teacher responding to the intended language of the
pupil. With reference to the use of predominantely one language in the class-
room (for example use of L1 Welsh in heritage classrooms and use of L2
Welsh in immersion classrooms), this reflects the fact that bilingual educa-
tion in Wales for pupils between the ages of three and seven usually means
instruction primarily through the medium of Welsh.
Bilingual education provision in 21st century Wales-as in other minority
language regions of Europe (e.g. the Basque Country)-is also a mix of heritage
language education (as defined by Baker, 2011: 234 and Johnstone, 2002) and
immersion education (as defined by Baker, 2011: 239 and Johnstone, 2002).
Although ‘this is an opportunity and a challenge’ that faces the education
system, ‘it can also be problematic in that the teacher has to cope within the
same class with L2 learners who may be at very different levels of proficiency
in the target language’ (Lewis, 2008: 77).
150 Part 4: Bilingual Education