The teacher is the cornerstone of bilingual provision in the classroom;
the teacher’s role in planning translanguaging activities has been highlighted
in this research. Teachers are responsible for the implementation of any lan-
guage policy and the effective delivery of bilingual provision in the classroom
as they are ‘the final arbiters of language policy implementation’ (Menken &
García, 2010: 1). Baker (2006: 314) commented that ‘teacher training and
developing teacher effectiveness is a foundation to the sustainability of any
bilingual program’.
Further evaluative research is essential to further understand how teach-
ers can scaffold the translanguaging activity in order to develop pupils’ lan-
guage skills and content learning. Cummins (2000: 71) maintained that a
central implication ‘for instruction of second language learners is that lan-
guage and content will be acquired most successfully when students are
challenged cognitively but provided with the contextual and linguistic sup-
ports or scaffolds required for successful task completion’.
Multiple examples of bilingual arrangements were observed during this
research survey, for example (i) to present some subjects through the
medium of one language and other subjects through the other language, (ii)
to present modules through the medium of one language and others through
the medium of the other language, and (iii) concurrent two language use
(e.g. translanguaging) within the same lesson. Like Creese and Blackledge
(2011: 18) in their study in complementary schools in England, we also
acknowledge that within the context of Welsh-medium and bilingual
schools that there are ‘many arguments articulated for separate bilingualism
as for flexible bilingualism’. Further evaluative research is needed to explore
which are the most effective ways of organising bilingual provision to
improve academic achievement in the classroom.
Additional case studies of translanguaging for emergent and competent
bilinguals would be useful to further establish how content learning and
language development is integrated for optimum learning. It is imperative to
understand pupils’ perception of translanguaging, together with the poten-
tial advantages of concurrent two language use in the bilingual classroom.
In order to unravel the issue of language arrangements in a bilingual class-
room, Baker (2010: 62) proposed a simple question: ‘What is bilingual about
bilingual education?’ This chapter has demonstrated that the answer is sur-
prisingly complex.
In the next chapter, we expand on these findings in the context of higher
education, exploring the relationship between bilinguals’ two languages in
the successful delivery of bilingual teaching methods at university.
Note
(1) The authors would like to acknowledge the advice and support of Professor Colin
Baker in writing this chapter. They would also like to thank the teachers and pupils
in the classrooms and schools who participated in this research project. Diolch yn fawr!
170 Part 4: Bilingual Education