Affixation 115
(61) parenta ‘command’ pamarenta'an ‘government’
asel ‘origin’ pangaselan ‘result’
arte ‘mean/understand’ pangarteyan ‘understanding’
bagi ‘distribute’ pambagiyan ‘distribution’
Evidence in support of Stevens’ observation that these are based on Indonesian
loans with the circumfix peng-...-an is the fact that many speakers regularly and
sometimes exclusively use the Indonesian forms rather than the Madurese forms
in their daily speech.
1.2.7 pa- with process nominals
As shown in section 1.2.1, when affixed to verbs (in the actor voice where ap-
propriate), suffixation of -na can derive process nominals for some speakers.
For the majority of speakers, however, the prefix pa- obligatorily combines with
these to form process nominals, so that the complete template is pa + ng + root
- na. Those speakers who accept process nominals without the pa- prefix also
accept the form with the prefix.
(62) toles ‘write’ panolessa ‘the writing’
massa' ‘cook’ pamassa'na ‘the cooking’
berka' run’ paberka'na ‘the running’
pokol hit’ pamokolla ‘the hitting’
The distinction between these process nominals and the result nominals of sec-
tion 1.2.2 is what one would expect: for example, while tolesan refers to the
product of the act of writing ‘handwriting’, panolessa/nolessa refers to the ac-
tion of the agent.
1.2.8. sa-, /sa/
The prefix sa- combines exclusively with nouns to derive nouns with the notion
of ‘same’ or ‘all’. In this instance there is systematic ambiguity which is re-
solved by the discourse context in which the word is used.
(63) roma ‘house’ saroma ‘same house/all the houses’
disa ‘village’ sadisa ‘same village/all the villages’
bengko ‘house’ sabengko ‘all the houses/same house’
polo ‘island’ sapolo ‘all the islands/same island’
This use of sa-, particularly with the meaning ‘same noun’, is derived from (if it
is not identical to) the use of sa- as a clitic form of ‘one’ as in (64).