Types of adverbial expressions 393
In (14) and (15), the frequency adverbs rangrang ‘seldom’ and seggut ‘often’
occur in immediate preverbal position, the preferred position for frequency ad-
verbs.
Along with rangrang and seggut, poampo and dangkadang are underived
adverbs (or at least obligatorily reduplicated roots). Others of the frequency
adverbs are derived forms. Biyasana ‘usually’ is a nominal form derived by
affixing the definite suffix to biyasa ‘usual’. Li-baliyan ‘several times’ is de-
rived by reduplication of the verbal root bali ‘return’ and affixation of -an, both
processes frequently encountered in adverb formation. Li-baliyan literally
means ‘back and forth’. The NP pan-barampan kale is made up of the quantifi-
er pan-barampan ‘several’ and kale ‘time’. The frequency adverbs are also
quite commonly found in preverbal position.
(16) Bambang biyasana ngenom kopi gi' laggu.
Bambang usually AV.drink coffee still morning
‘Bambang usually drinks coffee in the early morning.’
While the preverbal position is a preferred position, frequency adverbs
often occur in clause-initial position, although some speakers reject seggut ‘of-
ten’ and rangrang ‘seldom’ here.
(17) Dangkadang/Li-baliyan/Biyasana/Seggut,Bapa' a-lombur.
sometimes/several times/usually/often father AV-overtime
‘Sometimes/Many times/Usually Father works overtime.’
Li-baliyan and pan-barampan kale easily occur clause-finally as well.
(18) Ale' maca buku rowa li-baliyan/pan-barampan kale.
yngr.sibling AV.read book that several time
‘Little Sister has read that book several times.’
Most of the other frequency adverbs resist clause-final position, but can some-
times occur there with a significant pause preceding them.
1.3 Epistemic adverbials
Epistemic expressions signal the speaker’s attitude about a particular proposi-
tion–the degree of their certainty, doubt, equivocation, and so on toward that
proposition. The forms in Madurese are largely adjectival expressions and
nouns derived from adjectives. These include ara ‘possible’, dadak ‘sudden’,
emana ‘unfortunate’, megga' ‘possible’, onggu ‘definite’, pola ‘possible’, mom-
pong ‘maybe’, ga-moga ‘hopefully’ (moga ‘hopeful’), saongguna ‘apparently’,