Notes 233
(^27) He claims that instantiations of ritual insults and name calling are likely to be
realized by a stylized rise.
(^28) In this example I have not coded the element two because Brazil (1995) does
not provide a coding for numerals. There will be a discussion on how to code
numerals in Chapter 5.
(^29) To illustrate what they mean by entailment they provide the example (ibid. 84)
‘Apples grow in orchards and grapes grow in vineyards. [entails that] Apples
grow in orchards’.
(^30) The fi rst edition of Sperber and Wilson was published in (1986) and it was this
edition which Bolinger commented on.
(^31) See Halliday (1978) for a discussion of fi eld (the nature of the social action which
the communicators are engaged in), tenor (the relative statuses and role relation-
ships, both permanent and transitory, existing between the interlocutors) and
mode (the part language plays including the textual organization of the discourse,
the channel used to communicate and what is being achieved by the text in
communicating the message).
(^32) The term lexical item is employed here as a non-technical term to refer to
what people instinctively recognize as words. The issue of whether a lexical
item can encompass more than one orthographic word will be examined in
Chapter 4.
(^33) Eco employs an Italian comedy routine from the 1950s to make his point. A vain-
glorious braggart enters a train compartment and greets the other passengers
loudly before sitting down. After a while one of the other passengers stands up
and reaches up to the luggage rack. He withdraws his hand suddenly as if he has
been bitten and then implores his fellow passengers not to make noise as this will
disturb his sarkiapone which is sleeping in his bag. The newcomer, despite having
no idea what a sarkiapone is, does not want the other passengers to discover his
ignorance and so he starts to chat about sarkiapones as if he has been dealing with
them for years. Through a series of heuristic contributions he attempts to distin-
guish the sarkiapone in the luggage rack from Asian sarkiapones which he claims to
be familiar with.
(^34) A possible, though to my mind unconvincing, fi x to this problem would be to
argue that the lexical item girl refers to more than one class of females of which
the prototypical member of the class is +HUMAN – ADULT, and that it is the
co-text which licenses the intended semantic reference (Cruse 1986: 151).
(^35) Cruse and Lakoff employ the term basic level instead of core lexical item.
(^36) It may be of interest that Cruse (1986: 146) states that core lexical items are typ-
ically morphologically simple while superordinates and subordinates are not.
(^37) The term ‘context’ is severely impoverished in the psycholinguistic literature [as
it is in much of the work deriving from Cognitive Linguistics e.g. Cruse (1986)
and Lakoff (1987)] and refers solely to sentential context. In this book the term
context found within inverted commas (‘context’) indicates that the term refers
solely to sentential context.
(^39) Halliday (1994) proposes three language metafunctions: (1) Ideational –
language functioning as a means of conveying and experiencing the world;
Interpersonal – language functioning as an expression of the speaker’s attitudes