effects, are likely to profit more from it than are skep-
tics. Of course, overblown expectancies can backfire
when they are not realized—but that is a matter for a
discussion about placebo rather than meditation.
(Full disclosure—my first book, published in 1973,
was titled Placebo Therapy: A Practical Guide to Social
Influence in Psychotherapy. It argued in part that a
large proportion of the positive effects of therapy are
due to client expectations; and that rather than trying
to control for or eliminate placebo effects, therapists
should attempt to maximize them.)
Another relevant explanation for the effects of
meditation, stemming from the social psychology
theory of cognitive dissonance, is the effort justifica-
tion hypothesis. Basically, effort justification argues
that people tend to overvalue outcomes that they
put effort into achieving. In the case of the Wu form
of Tai chi, it took me two years of once-a-week
classes, plus nearly daily practice, to master the
form. It would seem like a foolish waste of a lot of
time and effort if I were to stop practicing it. Hence,
it is easy to believe that Tai chi must be good for me.
(For the last few years, my practice has diminished
to about once a week—in part to keep from forget-
ting the form. This is an example of effort justifica-
tion in action.)
Finally, there is the possibility that some benefits
might accrue from Tai chi as a form of meditation.
The Wu form is a long, repetitive sequence of move-
ments, always performed in the same manner. While
going through the movements, you are supposed to
maintain focused attention on your body as it moves
through space. This, of course, is impossible; but
when you realize that your mind has wandered, you
are supposed to bring your attention back to the task
at hand. This sequence—repetitive task/focused at-
tention/mind wandering/return attention to task—is
pretty much a definition of meditation.Vipassana Meditation
Last year, well into my retirement from academia, I
decided to give meditation another try. At the time, I
had been impressed by three books written by the his-
torian Yuval Noah Harari: Sapiens, Homo Deus,and 21
Lessons for the 21st Century.The last book has a final
chapter on meditation. Harari struck me as a clear
thinker, able to formulate fundamental questions and
cut through the fog of irrelevance to produce signifi-
cant insights; and he did so without losing his ironic
sense of humor. He labeled himself as an atheist, and
yet attributed much of the clarity of his thinking to the
practice of Vipassana Meditation (VM), a Buddhist
technique. I had some skepticism about his meditationvolume 25 number 1 2020 WWW.SKEPTIC.COM 29The late Satya Narayan Goenka. His audio and video recordings are
Illustration by Ástor Alexander used to teach the Vipassana Meditation (VM), a Buddhist technique.