other faiths, including Islam, and employed
Chinese tutors so that Kublai could learn the lo-
cal traditions and the foundations of Buddhism
and Taoism. This multicultural education later
helped him understand the importance of toler-
ating a conquered region’s traditions and faiths.
As a warrior, Kublai showed himself a grand-
son of Genghis Khan. When Möngke became
khagan in 1251, Kublai participated in his broth-
er’s territorial expansion, a process driven by the
tried-and-tested Mongol methods of extreme
brutality.
Tensions and Triumph
Following his proclamation as khagan in 1260,
Kublai had to deal decisively with Arigböge’s
claim to the throne before he could return to
campaigning. Internal tensions were becoming
as much of a threat as external enemies. Despite
the solemnity and power attached to the title of
khagan, Kublai’s accession marked the beginning
of the splintering of the Mongol lands into sub-
khanates: the Golden Horde on the Volga, the
Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate
based in Iran, and the Chinese territories ruled
by Kublai himself.
After Arigböge’s defeat in 1264, Kublai re-
sumed his military campaigns against the Song
dynasty in southern China three years later. Rul-
ing a populous territory of around 50 million
inhabitants, the Southern Song had developed
an innovative culture that carried out the first
experiments in movable type long before print-
ing techniques reached Europe. A flourishing
economy boosted the growth of its cities, some
of whose populations peaked at more than one
million people. To Kublai, the lands of the Song
seemed ripe for the taking.
The Song had already re-
sisted Mongol aggression for
many years. They had skilled
military commanders, gun-
powder, and excellent mili-
tary hardware, including
siege engines. When Kublai
resumed hostilities, it was
clear that the endgame was
looming.TRUSTED
ADVISERS
C
ompared to other cultures,
Mongol women during the time
of Kublai Khan enjoyed higher
social status within their soci-
ety. They enjoyed more rights, including
the ability to own and inherit property.
Historians attribute their position to the
Mongols’ nomadic origins. When warriors
were away on horseback, women orga-
nized and ran the camps. From common-
ers to nobility, women were encouraged
and expected to be capable administra-
tors. Kublai’s mother, Sorghaghtani, raised
her sons to value education and the les-
sons of other cultures. Kublai’s wife, Chabi,
was no different. A woman of intelligence,
independence, and open-mindedness, her
traits complemented Kublai’s priorities
as a leader, and the two became a power
couple. Chabi’s ability to navigate Chinese
and Mongol culture helped her husband
to do the same.AKG/ALBUMCHABI, CONSORT OF KUBLAI KHAN,
IN A 13TH-CENTURY PAINTING ON
SILK. NATIONAL PALACE MUSEUM,
TAIPEI, TAIWANBLENDING
CULTURES
Artistic styles from
all over Asia began
to combine under
the Yuan. A jade belt
buckle (below) from
the period features
floral motifs typical
of Central Asia and
a Chinese dragon.
Shanghai Museum
DANITA DELIMONT/AGE FOTOSTOCK