T
he dawn of the 20th
century was characterized
by an almost worldwide
feeling of optimism that this was
a cultural turning point—a stately
progress from the pessimism that
typified the end of the 19th century
toward a more vibrant, modern
era. Industrialization and empire-
building had brought prosperity—
to the Western world at least—and
with it the hope of creating a better,
more fair society. At the same time,
new scientific ideas, such as
Sigmund Freud’s concept of the
unconscious and Albert Einstein’s
theory of relativity, influenced the
way that people thought about
themselves and the world.
However, the new century
turned out to be a turbulent one,
as hopes for the future were first
shattered by the catastrophiccarnage of World War I, and then,
after a brief period of hedonistic
confidence, dashed by a global
economic depression and the rise
of Nazism and fascism, which
resulted in World War II.Modernism
In the world of literature, the new
century was characterized by a
move away from gritty realism to
distinctly modern forms and genres.
Taking their cue from the French
symbolists, poets such as Ezra
Pound developed a new style that
stretched the conventions of verse.
In 1922 The Waste Land, by Anglo-
American poet T. S. Eliot, captured
the disillusionment of the age.
Novelists also found a variety
of new means of expression.
Influenced by existentialist
philosophy and the new theoriesemerging in the field of psychology,
Franz Kafka created a fantastic
and often nightmarish world of
the alienated individual in modern
society, while in Japan Natsume
So ̄seki pioneered a similar genre
of first-person “I-novel.”
Another form that was adopted
by modernist novelists was the
“stream of consciousness” novel.
Although this approach was not a
new idea, it was given a particular
boost by psychological theories,
and it provided Irishman James
Joyce with the framework on
which he built his modernist style,
first in Ulysses and then more
experimentally in Finnegans Wake.
Modernism also featured in
more conventional prose narratives.
German author Thomas Mann, for
example, took the Bildungsroman,
or formative, rite-of-passage story,206 INTRODUCTION
1890 S 1912 1915 1920
The Qing (Manchu)
dynasty in China is
overthrown, and a
constitutional republic
declared, ending
around 4,000 years of
dynastic rule in China.Franz Kafka’s existential
novella Metamorphosis,
a nightmarish tale of
alienation, is published
in Germany.“Dulce et Decorum
Est” and other war
poems by British
soldier Wilfred Owen
are published
posthumously.Austrian neurologist
Sigmund Freud develops
his theories of the
unconscious and invents
the clinical treatment
known as psychoanalysis.1901 1914 –18 1917 1922
The Great War, later
known as World War I,
rages in Europe, with an
unprecedented loss of
life among a generation
of young men.In March the Russian
Revolution topples the
tsar, and by November
a radical Bolshevik
government has seized
power under Lenin.James Joyce’s Ulysses
uses a stream of
consciousness
technique to describe
a day in the life of
Leopold Bloom..The Hound of the
Baskervilles, by Arthur
Conan Doyle, is serialized
in The Strand Magazine.US_206-207_Ch5_Intro.indd 206 08/10/2015 13:07