The Literature Book

HEROES AND LEGENDS

unfaithful spouse, Clytemnestra.

The second play deals with revenge

by the king’s daughter Electra and

his son Orestes; the third concerns

its consequences. The cycle of

bloodshed is finally supplanted by

the rule of law, under the influence

of the goddess Athena.

MEDEA

(431 BCE), EURIPIDES

A tragedy by the Greek dramatist

Euripides (c.484–406 bce), Medea

is a compelling play about injustice,

jealousy, and revenge. With only

two actors on stage at any time, it

is based on the legendary tale of

Princess Medea and her ruthless

persecution of her husband Jason

(hero of the Argonauts myth), after

he abandons her for the daughter of

the king of Corinth. Despite Medea’s

cruelty, and in particular her savage

treatment of her own children with

Jason, Euripides nevertheless elicits

the audience’s sympathy for her.

WASPS

(422 BCE), ARISTOPHANES

One of the world’s great comedies,

by Greek dramatist Aristophanes

(c.450–c.388 bce), Wasps satirizes

the legal system in ancient Athens

by demonstrating how it could be

exploited by a corrupt demogogue.

The play’s action centers around

an ill-tempered old man who is

addicted to serving on juries. The

play is a classic of the Old Comedy,

which is characterized by the use

of a chorus, scathing inventive,

ribald humor, outspoken social

criticism, and elements of fantasy.

The play takes its title from the

chorus, a swarm of jurors.

RAMAYANA

(5TH–4TH CENTURIES BCE), VALMIKI

One of the great works of Indian

literature and rivaling even the

Mahabharata, the Ramayana

(meaning “Rama’s journey”) is a

Sanskrit epic of 24,000 couplets in

seven books. Its moral purpose is the

presentation of ideal role models—

for a king, brother, wife, servant, and

so on—within a narrative

framework. The story describes the

actions of the god Rama, with the

help of the monkey general

Hanuman, against a demon king

who has abducted his wife, Sita.

The Hindu sage and poet Valmiki,

the reputed author, makes an

appearance in the work.

SONGS OF CHU

(4TH CENTURY BCE)

A compilation of verse from the

southern Chinese state of Chu,

Songs of Chu contains many pieces

attributed to exiled minister Qu

Yuan (c.339–c.278 bce), a literary

innovator who introduced greater

formal variety into poetry. Many

of the poems here are influenced

by shamanistic folk rites and by

local legends. The first piece, “On

Encountering Sorrow,” is a long,

melancholic reflection that helped to

establish a tradition of romanticism

in Chinese literature.

METAMORPHOSES

(c.8 CE), OVID

Roman poet Ovid (43 bce–18 ce)

brought together an array of lively

mythological tales in his verse epic,

Metamorphoses. The work marks

a shift in popular taste from war to

love as an appropriate subject for

poetry. The stories are linked by

the theme of transformation, often

resulting from love or desire. Their

subjects include some of the best-

known legends of ancient Greece

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Valmiki

Known as the “first poet” of

Sanskrit poetry thanks to his

invention of the classic sloka

(“song”) verse form, Valmiki

was a sage who, according to

Hindu belief, lived in India at

some point between the 6th

and the 1st century bce. Once

a murderous highway robber

named Ratnakara, he became

a holy man after meditating

for many years as penance

after attempting to rob

Narada, a divine sage. During

his meditation, an ant hill

grew up around him, from

which he gained his name

“Valmiki” (Sanskrit for “one

born out of ant hills”). He

reportedly composed the

Ramayana at the command

of the Hindu god Brahma.

Key works

5th–4th century bce

Ramayana (see left)

No, I know no more how to

acquit than to play the lyre.

Wasps

Aristophanes

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