urban environment, what he called
their “social space.” Similarly (but
from a different political standpoint),
Jane Jacobs advocated that people
should resist the plans of urban
developers and create environments
that encouraged the formation of
communities within the city.
In the late 20th century, several
sociologists took up this idea
of the loss of community in
our increasingly individualized
Western society. A communitarian
movement emerged, led by
US sociologist Amitai Etzioni,
suggesting new ways to restore
community spirit in what had
become an impersonal society.
Robert D. Putnam also gave
prominence to the idea of
community in his explanation
of “social capital,” and the value
and benefits of social interaction.
Not everyone agreed, however,
that the answer to the social
problems of urban life was a return
to traditional community values.
Niklas Luhmann pointed out
that the problem today is one
of communication between
social systems that have become
increasingly fragmented and
differentiated. In the post-industrial
age, with all its new methods of
communication, new strategies for
social cohesion need to be found.Post-industrial cities
The nature of cities began to
change in the late 20th century,
as the manufacturing industries
moved out or disappeared. While
some cities became ghost towns,
others became centers of the
service industries. As working-
class areas were gentrified, andindustrial buildings became
desirable postmodern living
spaces, the concept of modern
metropolitan life became
associated with prosperity rather
than gritty industrialization.
This manifested itself not only
in the transformation of urban
living spaces, as described by
Sharon Zukin in the 1980s, but
throughout the postmodern social
order. George Ritzer likened the
efficiency and rationalization of the
service industries to the business
model pioneered by fast-food chain
McDonalds, and Alan Bryman has
noted how a US entertainment
culture created by Disney has
influenced modern consumerism.
Modern urban society, having been
created by industrialization, is now
being shaped by the new demands
of post-industrial commerce. ■MODERN LIVING
1968
1970 S
1982
1993 1995 2004
1993 1996
Niklas Luhmann
develops his social
systems theory.In Loft Living:
Culture and Capital
in Urban Change,
Sharon Zukin looks at
life in regenerated,
post-industrial cities.Amitai Etzioni
advocates a restoration
of civic values to foster
social cohesion in The
Spirit of Community:
The Reinvention of
American Society.Robert D. Putnam
explores social capital
and community spirit
in “Bowling Alone:
America’s Declining
Social Capital” in the
Journal of Democracy.In the spirit of Ritzer’s
“McDonaldization”
thesis, Alan Bryman
argues that modern
consumer society is
becoming increasingly
“Disneyized.”In Right to the City,
French Marxist Henri
Lefebvre argues that
people have the right to
control and transform
their social space.
George Ritzer likens the
changes in society to the
rationalization and
efficiency of a chain of
fast-food restaurants in The
McDonaldization of Society.New Communitarian
Thinking by Amitai
Etzioni advocates a
social philosophy
that will reinvigorate
collective values.103