The Sociology Book

284

“moral entrepreneurs” as the people
in society who have the power to
label others. They task themselves
with the role of persuading others
to see the world in a way that suits
their own moral beliefs. They fall
into two types: rule creators and
rule enforcers. The position and
identity of moral entrepreneurs
varies between societies, but they

are always people in positions of

relative power, who use that power

to get their own way by either

imposing their will on others,

or by negotiating with them.

Becker illustrated the actions

of moral entrepreneurs through the

case study of a publicity campaign

that was run by the Federal Bureau

of Investigation (FBI) in the US

in 1937. The goal was to ban the

recreational use of marijuana. The

moral entrepreneurs’ distaste for

public displays of enjoyment or

ecstasy, coupled with a Protestant

concern for respectability and self-

control, led to the push for legal

change. The FBI, according

to Becker, used various means to

achieve their goals; these included

propaganda such as the film Reefer

Madness, as well as public debate

and political lobbying.

Deviant “careers”

Becker was particularly interested

in individuals who internalized

the label of deviancy, making

it their defining characteristic,

and went on to adopt lifestyles

with deviancy as a central feature.

He studied marijuana users to

HOWARD S. BECKER

investigate how they progressed

through the various stages of a

deviant “career” and noted that

first-time marijuana smokers

had to learn how to perceive and

subsequently enjoy the effects of

the drug. Without this learning

process, he said, taking the drug

could be unpleasant or apparently

have no effect whatsoever.

Learning was central to the

meaning of the deviant act—

people only willingly learned what

was meaningful to them—and

individuals became fully fledged

“dope smokers” only when they

learned how to hide the habit from

the “straight” or “square” world.

If the smoker was caught and

charged or arrested, their deviant

status was likely to be confirmed.

Becker reasoned that following

a deviant career has its rewards,

though they do not come from

wider society; instead, they come

from feeling a sense of belonging

to a group that is united by its

opposition to the world at large.

Labeling critics

Despite its influence and continued

popularity, a number of criticisms

can be leveled at labeling theory.

The British sociologist Jock Young,

for example, points to the fact that

much labeling theory focuses

The film Reefer Madness (1936)
was a thinly disguised piece of
propaganda that charts the downfall
of a respectable high-school couple
who are corrupted by marijuana use.

The rule-breaker might

feel his judges are

outsiders.

Howard S. Becker

The process of making

a criminal... is a process

of tagging, defining,

identifying, segregating.

Frank Tannenbaum

Austrian-US historian (1893 –1969)