Grub Street
presentation of information can be selective.
Th is model does allow for two-way communica-
tion with the audience and is an approach much
used by government institutions and agencies.
Th e authors make the case that the need for
propaganda, mainly as a consequence of the fi rst
and second world wars, led to the development
of the Two-Way Asymmetric model. Th is focuses
upon the role of public relations in the process of
persuading audiences to change their attitudes
and behaviour and is associated strongly with
another early public relations practitioner,
Edward Bernays. The model acknowledges
that research on human behaviour is useful
for constructing persuasive programmes and
campaigns.
In particular, research on the audience’s exist-
ing interests, values and attitudes is considered
important, as the audience is seen as best
persuaded by messages in line with these. Finally
there is the later Two-way Symmetric model
associated with Scott Cutlip and Allen Center,
as well as with Bernays. Th is model stresses the
need to engage with the audience in order to
establish a harmonious relationship: for example
between an organization and its publics.
Th is requires that, rather than just seeking to
persuade its publics, the organization takes into
consideration the needs and goals of its publics
and adapts its own policies and practices to the
feedback received from them. Whilst express-
ing a preference for the Two-way Symmetrical
model, which is seen as a model of excellence
for PR practice, Grunig and Hunt note that the
choice of approach for any particular programme
or campaign will be contingent upon situational
factors.
Th e model has been open to criticism. One
particular criticism is that it fails to acknowledge
suffi ciently the infl uence of vested interests on
public relations activities. In response to such
criticisms, Dozier, Grunig and Grunig developed
the idea further in the following studies: David
M. Dozier, James E. Grunig and Larissa A.
Grunig, Manager’s Guide to Excellence in Public
Relations and Communication Management
(Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1995); Larissa E.
Grunig, James E. Grunig and David M. Dozier,
Excellent Public Relations and Eff ective Orga-
nizations: A Study of Communication Manage-
ment in Three Countries (Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2002). They employed aspects of
game theory, and identified three models of
practice, each of which denotes the degree of
symmetry likely in the communication process
and whose interests are likely to be served. Th eResearch by Irving Janis detailed in his study
entitled Victims of Groupthink (Houghton
Miffl in, 1972) demonstrated that what he termed
‘groupthink’ often leads to ineff ective decision-
making. Janis identified eight symptoms of
groupthink, ranging from the group’s ‘illusion of
invulnerability’ to the existence within the group
of ‘self-appointed mind guards’ – the latter being
group members who shield the group from
information and ideas that might challenge the
consensus. When groupthink predominates, the
group does not subject its ideas and decision-
making to careful scrutiny. Janis identifi ed other
variables likely to promote groupthink: a strong
dominant leadership that discourages open
debate, a group’s relative isolation from outside
sources, the absence of strategies for evaluating
decisions, and pressure being placed on the
group to make decisions quickly. A number of
subsequent studies have investigated the eff ects
of groupthink. See groups.
▶G. Moorhead, R. Ference and C.P. Neck, ‘Group
decision fi ascos continue: Space Shuttle Challenger
and a groupthink framework’ in R.S. Cathcart, L.A.
Samovar and L. Henman, eds, Small Group Commu-
nication: Th eory & Practice (Brown & Benchmark,
1996); Rupert Brown, Group Processes (Blackwell,
2000).
Grub Street Description of any form of literary or
journalistic drudgery. According to Dr Johnson
(1709–84), Grub Street was ‘originally the name
of a street near Moorfields in London, much
inhabited by writers of small histories, diction-
aries and temporary poems, whence any mean
production is called grub street’.
Grunig and Hunt: four models of public
relations practice, 1984 Proposed by James
Grunig and Todd Hunt in Managing Public
Relations (Harcourt Brace Jovanovitch, 1984),
these models have been widely used for analys-
ing public relations performance. Practices
based on The Press Agentry/Publicity model
focus activities on gaining publicity, on one-way
communication with the audience through the
mass media. Th ere is little concern with gain-
ing feedback and evaluating the eff ectiveness
of messages. Th e Public Information model is
seen to stem from the view of public relations
propounded by Ivy Lee – an early public rela-
tions practitioner – which emphasizes informing
the audience on issues by the presentation of
facts, details and fi gures.
Additionally Grunig and Hunt argue that most
practitioners of this model inform the public,
‘with the idea of making the organization more
responsible to the public’. Clearly however any