Dictionary of Media and Communication Studies, 8th edition

Listening

A B C D E F G H I

JK

L M N O P R S T U V

XYZ

W

would accept that the language at an individual’s

disposal infl uences the way he/she thinks about

the world. See sapir-whorf linguistic rela-

tivity hypothesis.

Linguistics The scientific study of language.

Diachronic or historical linguistics investigates

how language-use has changed over time;

synchronic linguistics is concerned with the state

of language at any given point in time; general

linguistics seeks to establish principles for the

study of all languages; descriptive linguistics is

concerned with the analysis of the characteris-

tics of specifi c language; contrastive linguistics

explores the contrasts between different

languages or families of languages; and compar-

ative linguistics concentrates on common

characteristics. Among a profusion of other

linguistics-related studies are anthropological

linguistics, biolinguistics, psycholinguistics and

sociolinguistics. See paradigm; semiology/

semiotics; structuralism.

Linotype printing Patented in 1894 by German

immigrant to Baltimore, US, Ottmar Mergen-

thaler. Th e operator uses a keyboard similar to

that of a typewriter. As each key is depressed, a

brass matrix for that particular letter drops into

place. When the line is complete, the row of

matrices is placed over a mould and the line of

type is cast, the molten lead alloy setting almost

at once. See monotype printing; printing.

Listening Though often taken for granted,

listening is a crucial element of human commu-

nication, and poor listening can often lead to a

breakdown in communication. Eff ective listening

may not always be that easy, given the number of

potential distractions in a typical social encoun-

ter: examples here might be pressure of time,

frequent interruptions or background noise.

Th e nature of the relationship we have with the

speaker(s) may aff ect the attention we pay to

what is being said. Th e content of the message

may challenge our attitudes, values and beliefs

and we may, therefore, be reluctant to listen with

an open mind. Th ere is some evidence that in a

group situation we may listen less carefully as

each of us leaves the task of careful listening to

others.

A number of researchers have identifi ed diff er-

ent listener preferences, and another problem

is that we may stick with our preference even

though it may not be the most appropriate

way to listen in all situations. In Small Group

Communication: Theory and Practice (Brown

and Benchmark, 1996), R.S. Cathcart, Larry

A. Samovar and L. Henman (with reference to

the work of Watson, Barker & Weaver) identify

others; in which we accept ourselves and other
people, and base our transactions on this orien-
tation. Harris argues that to reach this position
requires conscious decision and eff ort.
Harris believes many people hold an ‘I’m not
OK, You’re OK’ position as a result of early
socialization which, in attempting to shape
an individual’s behaviour into a pattern that is
socially acceptable, contains a lot of messages
critical of the individual – that is, not OK
messages. Th is position may lead to a feeling of
inferiority that shows itself in defensive commu-
nication, such as game-playing.
Experiences in early childhood, especially
abuse and neglect, may result in an individual
forming the perspective that whilst he/she is OK,
other people are not; hence the ‘I’m OK, You’re
not OK’ position, which may show itself in a
characteristically hostile or aggressive commu-
nicative style. ‘I’m not OK, You’re not OK’ is the
position of those who feel that neither they nor
others are OK; this negative perspective may
show itself through a despairing and resigned
attitude when communicating with others. Life
positions influence the kinds of life scripts
that individuals write for themselves. See topic
guide under interpersonal communica-
tion.
▶Ian Stewart and Vann Joines, TA Today (Lifespace,
1987); Amy and Th omas Harris, Staying OK (Arrow
Books, 1995); Abe Wagner, The Transactional
Manager (London: Th e Industrial Society, 1996).
Lifestyle See style; vals typology.
Light Programme One of three BBC radio chan-
nels until the introduction of Radio 1 in 1967,
and a change of names for the rest: Light became
Radio 2, Home Service became Radio 4, and the
Th ird Programme became Radio 3. Th e Light
Programme, for general entertainment radio,
was created in the year the Second World War
ended, 1945.
Lindup Committee Report on Data Protec-
tion, 1978 See data protection.
Linguistic determinism Th e proposition that
the language of a culture determines the way in
which the world is perceived and thought about.
Th us in acquiring a language, an individual is
also acquiring a particular way of thinking about
the world; a particular world-view. The two
linguists closely associated with this position
are Benjamin Lee Whorf and Edward Sapir,
whose Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis helped to
establish this particular view on the relationship
between language and thought. Though their
proposition that language actually determines
thought has been much questioned, many