Non-verbal behaviour: repertoireA B C D E F G H IJKL M N O P R S T U VXYZWfrom expressing diverging or contrary views, but
continues to hold them, or whether attitudes
have actually been changed as a result of domi-
nant media voices. See kuuki. See also topic
guide under communication models.
▶Kurt Neuwirth, Edward Frederick and Charles
Mayo, ‘Th e spiral of silence and fear of isolation’ (Jour-
nal of Communication, September 2007); Andrew F.
Hayes, ‘Exploring the forms of self-censorship: on the
spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression
avoidance strategies’ (Journal of Communication,
December 2007). An outstanding example from
fi ction on the theme ‘of keeping silent’ in the face of
isolation and duress is Hans Fallada’s Alone in Berlin
(Penguin, 2011), translated by Michael Hoff man.
Noise Impedance or barrier between the sending
and receiving of communication signals. Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver in The Math-
ematical Th eory of Communication (University
of Illinois Press, 1949) posit two levels of noise
problems: level A, engineering noise and, at the
higher level, B, semantic noise. Level A is physi-
cal and technical and is defi ned as any distortion
of meaning occurring in the communication
process which is not intended by the source,
but which aff ects the reception of the message-
carrying signals and their clarity. Th e semantic
level is ‘noise’ or impedance in terms of codes –
linguistic, personal, psychological, cultural, etc.
Later writers have identifi ed psychological noise
as a category in its own right: examples here
could include lack of motivation, personality
clashes and lack of shared experiences.
▶Richard Dimbleby and Graeme Burton, More Th an
Words: An Introduction to Communication (Rout-
ledge, 2007).
Non-verbal behaviour: repertoire A useful
classification scheme for the repertoire of
non-verbal behaviour is suggested by American
authors Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen in
‘Th e repertoire of nonverbal behaviour: catego-
ries, origins, usage and coding’ in Semiotica 1
(1969). Th eir fi ve categories of non-verbal move-
ment are: emblems, illustrators, aff ect displays,
regulators and adaptors.
Emblems are non-verbal behaviours that
directly suggest specific words or phrases,
usually without vocal accompaniment. Th us the
beckoning fi rst fi nger is the emblem for ‘Come
here’. Emblems are short-cut communication
signals useful in many ways, especially where
verbal communication is diffi cult or inappropri-
ate, for example when a person is thumbing a lift.
Illustrators accompany and reinforce verbal
messages: the nod of the head, a supportive
smile, leaning forward to show interest, sketch-got referred to as the nickelodeon; a translation
in meaning testifi ed in the post-Second World
War hit song, ‘Put another nickel in/In the Nick-
elodeon ...’
Nielsen ratings audience measurement
figures produced by the US company A.C.
Nielsen, the best-known and most influential
ratings information business.
Nine American lifestyles See vals typology.
Noelle-Neumann’s spiral of silence model of
public opinion, 1974 In her paper, ‘Th e spiral
of silence: a theory of public opinion’ published
in the Journal of Communication, 24 (1974),
German professor of communications research
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann examines the inter-
play between three communicative factors: the
mass media, interpersonal communication
and an individual’s perception of his/her own
standpoint in relation to others in society.
Th e model is based upon the belief that people
are uneasy, suffer dissonance, if they feel
themselves to be isolates with regard to general
opinion and attitude: that they are the odd one
out. In response to a situation, we tend to ask,
what do other people think; what is the majority
or dominant opinion? A person may fi nd ‘that
the views he holds are losing ground; the more
this appears to be so, the more uncertain he
will become of himself, and the less he will be
inclined to express his opinion’. Th is is the spiral
of silence.
The dominant view which the mass media
express (see elite; hegemony; power elite)
exerts pressure to conform, to step into line; and
the more this view is expressed, the more the
dominant view is reinforced; the more dominant
it appears, the more diffi cult it becomes to hold
a contrary view. In a sense, Noelle-Neumann’s
model is a spiral within a spiral, the one an asser-
tion, the other a withdrawal into a silence as the
assertion grows stronger.
Th e spiral tapers towards silence under the
infl uence exerted by opinion expressed as domi-
nant by the mass media. Th us a spiral of silence
on the part of individual members of the public
refl ects the spiral of dominance represented by
the media. At the same time counter-infl uence
can come to bear from interpersonal support for
deviant opinion.
Professor Noelle-Neumann’s definition of
public opinion is that ‘which can be voiced in
public without fear of sanctions and upon which
action in public can be based ... voicing opposite
opinions, or acting in public accordingly, incurs
the danger of isolation’. Th e model prompts the
question whether the public merely holds back