OnomatopoeiaA B C D E F G H IJKL M N O P R S T U VXYZWing and responsive individuals rather than of
the socially isolated, passive atoms of earlier
theories.
Th e multi-step model is a development of the
other two, allowing for the sequential relay-
ing of a message. It is not specific about the
number of steps there will be in the relaying
process; nor does it specify that messages must
originate from a source and then pass straight
through the agencies of the mass media. The
model suggests a variable number of relays in the
communication process and that the receivers
may receive the message at various stages along
the relay network. Th e exact number of steps in
the process depends upon the following: (1) the
intentions of the source; (2) the availability of the
mass media; (3) the extent of audience exposure
to agencies of communication; (4) the nature of
the message; (5) the importance of the message
to the audience.
Th e model allows the researcher to account for
diff erent variables in diff erent communication
situations. It may usefully be applied to commu-
nications on the internet where messages pass
between scores, hundreds or thousands of users,
each with the opportunity of modifying that
message. See mediation. See also topic guide
under communication models.
Online campaigning Widely acknowledged as a
form of people power, online campaigning came
into its own in 2011 when human rights agencies
such as 38 Degrees (UK) and its US sister, Avaaz,
mobilized popular protest – by mass online
petitions, activist protests and demonstrations –
which infl uenced government decision-making
and corporate activity.
Free Press, the journal of the uk campaign
for press and broadcasting freedom, in
its July/August 2011 edition was of the opinion
that online campaigners such as 38 Degrees
were instrumental in forcing the abandonment
by news corp, the empire of Rupert Murdoch,
of its ambition to obtain total control of BSkyB
(British Sky Broadcasting), following the hacking
scandal involving News of the World journalists.
38 degrees is the angle of slope when avalanches
take place; in this case, when avalanches of
protest command the attention of the powers
that be.
Online drama See web or online drama.
Onomatopoeia Words that imitate actual
sounds are onomatopoeic, such as bang, thud,
crackle, hiss, quack and twitter. They are
mostly invented words. Th e fi rst ever attempts
at spoken language were probably onomatopoeic
and such words continue to be invented, not aOmnimax Spectator-surrounding fi lm projection
technique developed, like imax, in Canada from
a system invented by an Australian, Ron James.
Though there are several Omnimax screens
in North America, the first in Europe, with
the largest screen in the world, operates at the
55-hectare Paris exhibition complex, Cité des
Sciences et de L’Industrie at Porte de la Villette,
which opened in 1986.
La Géode off ers a projection screen covering
10,000 square feet and surrounds spectators
with a complete hemisphere, exceeding the
normal fi eld of vision. Like Imax, Omnimax uses
70mm film which passes through the camera
horizontally, producing a 5cm × 7cm fi lm image
- approximately nine times the image area on
ordinary cinema fi lm. Camera and projector use
a 25mm fi sh-eye lens with a scope of 172 degrees.
A massive light source is required to project
such a gigantic picture and Omnimax has a
15 kW water-cooled xenon lamp.
One-step, two-step, multi-step fl ow models
of communication Basically these are refi ne-
ments of the hypodermic needle model of
communication. Th e one-step model ignores
the role of the opinion leader in the fl ow of
communication and presents the view that the
mass media communicate directly to a mass
audience. There is no suggestion, however,
that the messages reach all receivers equally or
that they have the same eff ect on each individual
in the audience. Th e model takes into account
the influence of an individual’s perception,
memory and selective exposure on his/her
particular interpretation of a message.
A study conducted by Paul Lazarsfeld and
others of the 1940 presidential election in the
US threw doubt on the validity of the one-step
theory. Reporting in Th e People’s Choice (Duell,
Sloan & Pearce, 1944), the authors found little
evidence of the direct infl uence of the media;
indeed people seemed more influenced by
face-to-face contact with others. Lazarsfeld and
his fellow researchers suggested that the fl ow
of communication to the individual is often
directed through an opinion leader, who plays a
vital role in both spreading and interpreting the
information.
They thus proposed a two-step model of
communication fl ow which later research has
found to be generally useful. In highlighting the
importance of the social context of the receiver
in the process of the interpretation of mass
communication messages, this model differs
signifi cantly from earlier ones. It presents the
mass audience as being composed of interact-