Self-disclosureA B C D E F G H IJKL M N O P R S T U VXYZWthem. Individuals also attempt to infl uence the
ideas others have, by controlling the impressions
they create in self-presentation. Th e feedback
received from self-presentation enables the
individual both to evaluate and to shape his/her
self-image.
Messages concerning the self abound in the
content of interpersonal communication,
whilst intrapersonal communication also
plays a vital role, not only in the generation of
ideas about ourselves – some of which we may
incorporate into the self which we present to
others for feedback – but also in the decoding
and evaluating of messages that we receive from
others and in deciding whether or how to act on
them.
How we see ourselves affects the way we
communicate. If, for example, we see ourselves
as popular and sociable, we are likely to be
confi dent and outgoing in our communication
with others. Excessive concern over self-esteem
can lead to self-consciousness. People who are
self-conscious are often shy, easily embarrassed
and anxious in the presence of other people.
It should be remembered that the self-concept
is not fi xed, but rather is subject to continuing
modifi cation and change; it can alter according
to the situations we are in, the people we are
with, and over time; it may also be found in
mass communication, for example in images
of idealized men and women found in adver-
tisements. See assertiveness training;
confirmation/discomfirmation; deviance
amplification; impression management;
johari window; labelling process (and
the media); lookism; self-disclosure;
self-fulfilling prophecy; self-identity;
self-monitoring; self-presentation.
▶Brian Morris, Anthropology of Th e Self: Th e Indi-
vidual in Cultural Perspective (Pluto 1994).
Self-disclosure Process by which, through
statements verbal and non-verbal, we transmit
new information about ourselves to others.
Self-disclosure is based on honest, open
interaction between people. Our decision to
disclose information about ourselves is usually
related to the development and intimacy of a
relationship. Usually when we self-disclose to
others, they reciprocate and in this way a deeper
understanding and relationship may develop. As
Steve Duck notes in Human Relationships (Sage,
2007), ‘people feel they should reveal personal
information about themselves as appropriate to
the script for stages’ in the development of that
relationship.
Of course we have to make careful choices inJohn Fiske in ‘Moments of television’, in Ellen
Seiter et al, Remote Control: Television, Audi-
ence and Cultural Power (Routledge, 1989),
writes, ‘Segmented texts are marked by abrupt
transformations from segment to segment that
require active, experienced, televisionally literate
viewers to negotiate.’
In a wider sense, and in relation to advertis-
ing and the targeting of audiences for the
sale of goods and services (not to mention the
marketing of images, ideas, ideologies, political
parties, etc.), segmentation relates to current
practices dividing consumers into lifestyle
categories. Segmentation indicates a recognition
that audiences are heterogeneous (character-
ized by difference) rather than homogeneous
(characterized by sameness). Classification of
audience into socio-economic groupings has
become an industry in its own right. See topic
guide under advertising/marketing.
Selective exposure Individuals have a tendency
to attend to – expose themselves to – messages
that are consistent with their existing attitudes
and beliefs. Equally they practise selective percep-
tion – reading messages in accordance with their
existing attitudes. Th us they may either ignore
or misinterpret those messages, or parts of a
message, which confl ict with or are dissimilar to
held attitudes and expectations. Sometimes also
referred to as selective negligence. See disso-
nance; reinforcement.
Self-actualization See maslow’s hierarchy
of needs.
Self-concept A person’s self-concept is the total
view that person has of him/herself. It includes
such elements as an individual’s view of his/
her character, body image, abilities, emotions,
qualities and relationships with others. Th e self-
concept is commonly seen as being composed
of the self-image and self-esteem. Th e self-image
can be seen as the descriptive part of the self-
concept; it is the picture we have of ourselves.
Self-esteem on the other hand is the evaluative
part; how we feel about ourselves.
The self-image can be further divided into
three elements: ‘the self as I think I am’; ‘the self
as I think others see me’; and ‘the self I would
like to be’ (the ideal self-image). Discrepan-
cies between the ideal self-image and ‘the
self as I think I am’ can result in a low level of
self-esteem, as our self-esteem is usually based
on our perceived successes and failures in life.
Other people are clearly very influential in
shaping any individual’s conception of self, as an
individual’s self-concept depends in part upon
his/her perception of the ideas others have about