Self-fulfi lling prophecy
of an ongoing debate concerning the relative
importance of structure (societal infl uences) and
agency (an individual’s thoughts and actions) in
the formation of the self.
Charles H. Cooley in Human Nature and
Social Order (Shocken, 1902) developed the
notion of the ‘looking-glass self ’. For Cooley,
an important infl uence on the development of
the self is the responses that others make to us
and to our behaviour. These responses serve
as a looking-glass from which we learn to see
ourselves as we imagine others see us. This
feedback aids us in understanding who we are.
Building on Cooley’s work, George H. Mead
in Mind, Self and Society (University of Chicago
Press, 1934) argues that the self is made by a
reflexive process involving self-interaction
between the ‘I’ and the ‘Me’; the ‘I’ being the act
of experiencing and the ‘Me’ the socialized part
of the self, the object with which the ‘I’ experi-
ences and interacts. Th e ‘Me’ is the view of the
self that an observer might have.
Language is seen as a crucial medium by
which the individual represents itself to itself.
Self-interaction enables the human being to
develop the self, to defi ne and interpret his/her
world and to organize actions based on such
interpretations; in short to be an active social
agent. It is through interaction with others, espe-
cially role-playing, that the individual learns the
ability to see him/herself as others do, an ability
which aids awareness and identifi cation of the
self, and allows the ‘Me’ to expand.
In particular, through developing the mecha-
nism of the ‘generalized other’, the individual
acquires the ability to predict how people in
general might evaluate him/her in the light of
his/her behaviour. For Mead, ‘it is this general-
ized other in his experience which provides him
with a self ’. Mead’s ideas highlight the role that
others can play in construction of self-identity.
Erving Goff man in Th e Presentation of Self in
Everyday Life (Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 1959)
highlights the way in which the self-concept is
developed through a process by which the indi-
vidual presents aspects of the self to others on
which he/she then receives feedback. Th e degree
of calculation in acts of self-presentation,
though, will usually vary with the situation.
Goff man argues that the sustaining of everyday
performances is important both to the develop-
ment and maintenance of the self-concept, and
thus also to self-identity. Disturbances in such
performances constitute, therefore, a threat: ‘Life
may not be much of a gamble, but interaction is.’
Competent performances require considerablethe fi rst place about those to whom we will self-
disclose, at what rate, to what extent, on what
topics and in what situations. Self-disclosure
usually requires trust, as it involves an element
of risk; if, for example, we self-disclose too much
too soon in a relationship, the result may be a
rebuff.
Through self-disclosure we not only learn
more about others, we also learn more about
ourselves, in that others’ disclosures can contain
views about us. It is also a means by which we
can come to terms with the positive and negative
aspects of our self-image. See johari window;
scripts; self-concept; self-presentation.
▶Kathryn Dindia and Steve Duck, eds, Communica-
tion and Personal Relationships (John Wiley & Sons,
2000); Sandra Petronio, Boundaries of Privacy:
Dialectics of Disclosure (State University of New York
Press, 2002).
Self-fulfilling prophecy This effect occurs
when the act of predicting that certain behav-
iour will take place helps cause that behaviour
to occur and the prediction or prophecy is
fulfilled. The expectations people have of an
individual’s behaviour can, if communicated to
the individual, help create a situation in which
the individual conforms to the expectations and
fulfi ls the prophecy. Th ere is a clear link between
labelling and the self-fulfi lling prophecy eff ect
in that the act of applying a label can be the fi rst
step in ensuring a self-fulfi lling prophecy.
Th e eff ect may be found particularly in situa-
tions where individuals have diff ering amounts
of power, and where one or more individuals are
involved in the evaluating of others. Clearly the
message contained in interpersonal and mass
communication may often carry labels and thus
have the potential for triggering self-fulfi lling
prophecy effects, but it is largely through
intrapersonal communication that an
individual decides whether or not to conform
to the expectations of others. Further, the self-
fulfi lling prophecy eff ect is only one of many
infl uences on our behaviour and it may not be
relevant in all cases. See deviance amplifica-
tion; labelling process (and the media);
self-concept. See also topic guide under
communication theory.
Self-identity Stella Ting-Toomey in Communi-
cation Across Cultures (Guildford Press, 1999)
comments that ‘individuals acquire their identi-
ties via interaction with others’. Th eorists from a
number of intellectual traditions have explored
the connections between social interaction and
the development and maintenance of the self-
concept and self-identity. These form part