Spatial zones
Special eff ects (SFX) Th e ‘real’ gorilla in King
Kong (1933) was just 18 inches high – that is
special effects. Simulations of earthquakes,
explosions, fl oods, fi res, storms, of the interior
of Hell, of war in space or 40 fathoms deep are
what SFX wizards specialize in, while in the case
of Roland Emmerich’s 2012 (2009), audiences are
treated to the destruction of the world (or as the
director put it, ‘you see the whole world going
to shit’).
Tim Dirks’s fi lmsite.org webpage provides a
useful listing of outstanding examples of SFX
down the years, noting the particular areas of
eff ects innovation. In his introduction to Visual
Special FX Milestones Dirks writes, ‘Th e earli-
est effects were produced within the camera
(in-camera eff ects), such as simple jump-cuts
or superimpositions, or were created by using
miniatures, back projection, or matte paintings.
‘Optical eff ects came slightly later, using fi lm,
light, shadow, lenses and/or chemical processes
to produce the film effects. Film titles, fades,
dissolves, wipes, blow ups, skip frames, blue-
screen, compositing, double exposures, and
zooms/pans are examples of various optical
eff ects. Cel animation, scale modelling, clayma-
tion, digital compositing, animatronics, use
of prosthetic makeup, morphing, and modern
computer-generated or computer graphics
imagery (CGI) are just some of the more modern
techniques that are widely used for creating
incredible special or visual eff ects.’
In fact, ‘trick’ photography goes back to such
photographic pioneers as Oscar Rejlander, who
produced allegorical multi-photo compositions
(The Two Ways of Life, 1857), and Eadweard
Muybridge (Th e Horse in Motion, 1878). Among
moving picture experimenters were Georges
Méliès (Th e Vanishing Lady, 1896, and La Voyage
Dans La Lune, 1902) and Edward S. Porter (Th e
Great Train Robbery, 1903).
Th roughout cinema history SFX have proved
the stimulus to innovation, the allurement of
mass audiences and the generation of profi ts as
well as sky-high costs: James Cameron’s Avatar
(2009) cost an estimated US 300 million, but
it also made more money than any other fi lm in
history.
Landmarks of SFX have been Stanley
Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), George
Lucas’s Star Wars series (from 1977) and Steven
Spielberg’s Close Encounters of the Th ird Kind
(1977). Computer generated imagery (CGI) soon
became the key creator of eff ects, the fi rst movie
to be made entirely by computer being Disney’s
US18 million Tron (1982), to be followed byterritoriality, that is the human need to
establish, defi ne and defend territory, is also an
aspect of spatial behaviour. Th ree diff erent kinds
of territory are noted by Morris (2002): personal,
family and tribal. Personal territories include
such spaces as an individual’s house, car or
favourite chair. Individuals often mark what they
consider to be their personal territory as a means
of defi ning and defending it. Th us a bag may be
left on a favourite chair in the sitting room.
Th e home and garden are often the key areas
of territory for the family, and people may
devote signifi cant amounts of time and energy
on activities such as gardening and DIY in order
to customise and mark it. Non-family members
usually enter this territory by invitation only.
Morris (2002) notes the way in which the family
may extend its notion of family territory. A family
trip to the beach usually involves fi nding a space
that can be used throughout the stay; once the
spot is secured, several markers may be placed to
defend this territory such as windbreaks, towels,
beach chairs and a picnic hamper.
In certain situations displays of tribal territory
can also be seen. According to Morris (2002),
groups, gangs, communities and nations are all
capable of generating tribal identities. These
identities can be displayed and communicated
by various ‘territorial signals’, such as national
fl ags, logos, styles of dress, football club strips,
and the face-painting found among some sports
fans.
orientation, that is the angle at which people
sit or stand in relation to one another, is also an
aspect of spatial behaviour. Orientation can be
used to convey a range of messages about rela-
tionships, status, mood, personality and social
context. According to M. Cook (1970) in ‘Experi-
ments on orientation and proxemics’, Human
Relations 23, if people are in a potentially hostile
or competitive situation they usually face each
other head on, whereas when in a co-operative
relationship or situation, people tend to sit next
to or adjacent to each other. Ting-Toomey (1999)
notes that there are cultural diff erences here: for
example, people from high-contact cultures tend
to prefer a more direct orientation. Orientation
can also be employed in interaction regulation:
when circulating at a crowded party, for example,
we would signal our intention to move on by
moving our body round towards new conversa-
tional partners (Argyle, 1988). See communica-
tion: intercultural communication.
▶Allan & Barbara Pease, Th e Defi nitive Book of Body
Language (Orion, 2004).
Spatial zones See spatial behaviour.