Communication, functions
amount of NVC in the repertoire of diff erent
peoples and nations varies considerably in range,
emphasis, frequency and rules for use.
Some non-verbal signs appear to be universal,
for example the eyebrow fl ash used in greeting.
There are also many cultural differences in
non-verbal communication, for example the
rules regarding proximity, that is the amount of
space or distance people should keep between
them when communicating. Th ese are diff erent
for Middle-Eastern countries when compared
with our own. Th e use of non-verbal communi-
cation may also be infl uenced by aspects of an
individual’s personality. Extroverts, for example,
are thought to be more expansive in their use of
gestures. Some gender diff erences have been
noted in the use of NVC. Several studies have
shown that women are more likely to touch each
other in conversation than men are.
Ambiguity often surrounds the interpretation
of non-verbal signs, not least because quite a
lot of body movement is not communicative in
intent and it may be diffi cult for the receiver to
know whether a particular sign was intended to
communicate a message or not. Judy Gahagan
in Social Interaction and its Management
(Methuen, 1984) argues that the ambiguity
surrounding the interpretation of non-verbal
signs is essential to one of their major functions
in communication – dropping hints.
People may wish such messages to be open
to varied interpretation so that the hint can be
retracted later, if necessary. Non-verbal signs
thus provide what Gahagan calls ‘diplomatic
fl exibility’. As she remarks, ‘non-verbal commu-
nication is a language adapted for hints and
innuendo’. See accent; bart; non-verbal
behaviour: repertoire; object language;
silence.
▶Roger E. Axel, Gestures: Th e Do’s and Taboos of
Body Language Around the World (John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1998); Stella Ting-Toomey, Communicat-
ing Across Cultures (Guildford Press, 1999); Desmond
Morris, People Watching (Vintage, 2002); Allan and
Barbara Pease, Th e Defi nitive Book of Body Language
(Orion, 2004); Ted Polhemus and UZi PART B,
Hot Bodies, Cool Styles: New Techniques in Self-
Adornment (Th ames and Hudson, 2004).
Communication postulates See postulates
of communication.
Communications Act (UK), 2003 Legislation
bringing far-reaching changes to the landscape
of telecommunications and broadcasting in
Britain; and creating a ‘super regulator’ in the
Offi ce of Communications (ofcom). Telecom-
munications and broadcasting are seen inism-collectivism (Westview, 1995); Richard D. Lewis,
When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures
(Nicholas Brealey International, 2006); Marieke De
Mooij, Global Marketing and Advertising: Under-
standing Cultural Paradoxes (Sage, 2009); Marieke
De Mooij, Consumer Behaviour and Culture: Conse-
quences for Global Marketing and Advertising (Sage
Publications Inc., 2010).
Communication, functions Many and varied
listings have been made by communications
analysts. The following eight functions are
usually quoted as being central: instrumental
(to achieve or obtain something); control (to get
someone to behave in a particular way); informa-
tion (to fi nd out or explain something); expres-
sion (to express one’s feelings or put oneself over
in a particular way); social contact (participating
in company); alleviation of anxiety (to sort out a
problem, ease a worry about something); stimu-
lation (response to something of interest); and
role-related (because the situation requires it).
See jakobson’s model of communication.
Communication integration See integra-
tion.
Communication, interpersonal See inter-
personal communication.
Communication, intrapersonal See intra-
personal communication.
Communication: mobile concept of See
mobilization.
Communication models See topic guide
under communication models.
Communication, non-verbal (NVC) Michael
Argyle in Bodily Communication (Methuen,
1988) identifi es the main codes of NVC: touch
and bodily contact; spatial behaviour
(proxemics and orientation); appearance;
facial expression; gesture and head
nods; posture; gaze (eye movement and eye
contact); and non-verbal vocalizations.
Varyingly, NVC conveys much of what we wish
to say, and much of what we would wish to with-
hold. Common functions of non-verbal commu-
nication include: the conveying of interpersonal
attitudes; the display of emotional states;
self-presentation; the regulation of interaction;
the giving of meaning to verbal communication;
the maintenance of interest in a communicative
encounter; the provision of advance warning of
the kind of verbal communication to follow; and,
very importantly, the provision of feedback in
communication.
Affi liation, sexual attraction, rejection, aggres-
sion, dominance, submission, appeasement, fear,
grief, joy are often best expressed – and in some
cases can only be expressed – through NVC. Th e