245

X

XENOPHANES (c. 570–c. 475 BCE).
Greek pre-Socratic philosopher, poet,
and social critic. Xenophanes criticized
anthropomorphic portrayals of the gods,
claiming that if it were possible “horses
would draw their gods like horses, and
cattle like cattle.” He argued instead for
an incorporeal universal god, advancing
a partial monotheism. Yet in his view
this supreme deity was only the greatest
among many gods. With regards to epis-
temology, he regarded the human capac-
ity to grasp the truth as inhibited by the
limited nature of human experience.

XIONG SHILI (a.k.a. HSIUNG
SHIH-LI) (1885–1968). Xiong Shili was
a leading Chinese philosopher who
synthesized Buddhism, Confucianism,
Western analytic philosophy, and the the-
ory of evolution. Originally an adherent
of the idealist school of the Yogacara tradi-
tion of Mahayana Buddhism, he later
turned to the metaphysical Confucian clas-
sic Book of Changes (Yijing) and the Neo-
Confucian idealism of Wang Yangming
(1472–1529). In 1944 he completed his

major work, A New Theory of

Consciousness-Only (Xin weishi lun).

Xiong accepted Buddhist explanations

for the causes of human suffering, but

considered Confucianism superior as a

guide for moral behavior. Xiong taught at

Beijing University from 1922 until 1954.

He continued to write until his death in

1968, generally unaffected by changing

political circumstances.

XUANZANG (c. 602–664). Xuanzang

was a Chinese Buddhist scholar, transla-

tor, and traveler who journeyed through

Central Asia to India between 629 and 645

in order to acquire Buddhist scriptures.

Upon his return he began a project to

translate the 657 Sanskrit texts he had

gathered. Xuanzang was a proponent of

the idealist Yogacara or Consciousness-

Only School. He also wrote an account of

his travels, the Xiyuji (A Record of Western

Regions). His 16-year journal was the basis

of the sixteenth-century novel Xiyouji

(Journey to the West), a religious allegory

that can be compared to a combination of

Pilgrim’s Progress and The Wizard of Oz.