25AXIOLOGYitself is legitimate. In the history of reli-
gion, two of the more significant disputes
over authority involve the papacy (Petrine
Authority) in Christianity and disputes
over the religious authority in succession
to Muhammad (Sunni versus Shi’ite tra-
ditions in Islam).
AVATA R. A term used in Indian religions
to refer to a divine incarnation or mani-
festation. See also HINDUISM.
AVERROËS (a.k.a. Ibn Rushd) (1126–
1198). An Arabic Islamic philosopher,
born in Andalusia, who developed a
rich natural theology with arguments for
God’s existence. His cosmological argu-
ment conceives of the world as God’s cre-
ation, but not in time. God as the eternal,
necessarily existing creator, has always
sustained the world in existence. Some-
times thought of as denying the afterlife,
Averroës held that there will be a resur-
rection though this will not consist of
a revitalization of our current bodies.
Averroës also wrote on a number of
important legal-ethical issues, including
the guidelines and standards for waging
jihad (from the Arabic, meaning “strug-
gle”; this term can be applied in many
contexts such as personal struggles
against internal evil, verbal arguments,
and wars). His works include Commen-
taries of Aristotle’s Categories, Posterior
Analytics, The Physics, On the Heavens,
On Generation and Corruption, On the
Soul, The Short Physical Treatises, Meta-
physics, Politics, Rhetoric, The Incoherence
of the Incoherence, A Commentary on
Plato’s Republic, The Middle Commentary
on Porphyry’s Isagoge, On the Harmony
of Religion and Philosophy, The Distin-
guished Jurist’s Primer, and a medical
encyclopedia titled Generalities.AVICENNA, ABU ALI AL-HUSAYN
(a.k.a. Ibn Sina) (980–1037). A Persian
Islamic philosopher and physician,
Avicenna reconciled Aristotelian and
Neoplatonic thought with Islamic philo-
sophy. Avicenna defended the belief in
an afterlife for individual souls and he
argued that, for God, essence and exis-
tence are one (the very meaning of God is
that which necessarily exists). His works
include The Book of Healing, The Canons
of Medicine, Remarks and Admonitions,
an autobiography, The Life of Ibn Sina,
and many other treatises.AXIOLOGY. From the Greek axios +
logos, meaning the study or theory of
values. Axiology is therefore broader
than ethics, for it includes the theory of
values that do not directly relate to ethics,
such as the value of artistic creativity.
Hedonism is the value theory that plea-
sure and pleasure alone is good. Natural
law is the theory of values which locates
the value of good of things in their
nature.