Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion

CAUSE, CAUSATION

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CAUSE, CAUSATION. Causation is
relevant in philosophy of religion in
accounts of the cause of the cosmos itself,
the nature of causation between physical
events, and the causation of physical
events by mental events and vice versa.
The concept of a causal explanation is
central to natural theology, as well as to
secular, naturalistic projects designed
to explain religious life as no more than
human projections, faulty reasoning, and
so on.

CERTAINTY AND DOUBT. Apparent
contraries. To be certain that X is not to
be in doubt that X. But can one be certain
that X by faith and yet have doubts that X
by reason? See also DOUBT.

CH’ENG I. See CHENG YI.

CHANG TSAI. See ZHANG ZAI.

CHANG TUNG-SUN. See ZHANG
DONGSUN.

CHANGE. Change has been an impor-
tant topic in philosophy of religion. Clas-
sical Buddhism teaches that everything is
in a state of change. Some theistic argu-
ments claim that change requires a change-
less cause (for Aristotle, the unmoved
mover). Some theistic philosophers hold

that to attribute change to God is to treat

God as imperfect or less than perfect.

It has been argued that if God changes,

God changes due to some imperfection,

otherwise God would not change. Still

other theists hold that a God of perfect

love would change in God’s response to

changing values and events in creation.

CHAOS THEORY. Chaos, from the

Greek khaos, meaning “vast chasm or

void” or “confusion.” Chaos theory is a

branch of mathematics that deals with

extremely complex dynamic systems that

appear to be random, but are actually the

result of an extreme sensitivity during

initiation to error. If one were to compare

two identical chaotic systems, and then

slightly alter one of them in an earlier

stage, the two systems would be vastly dif-

ferent at a later stage. A popular example

of a chaotic system involves time travel

into the past where even the death of a

single insect can change the course of the

future in inexpressible ways (popularly

known as the “butterfly effect”). The

theory relies upon a physical universe

that is governed by the laws of physics

in which every action has a consequence.

Chaotic systems are the subject of research

in ecology, economics, and mathematics.

CHARITY, PRINCIPLE OF. One should

presume that others are intelligent and

well-meaning unless there are strong rea-

sons for thinking otherwise. The principle