is becoming a possibility. Amniocentesis
can determine whether or not a fetus is
affected, or, alternatively, newborn babies
can be screened for the disease; early
diagnosis and treatment improves the
long-term prognosis.
cystitisInflammation of the bladderlin-
ing, usually due to a bacterial infection.
The main symptoms are a frequent urge
to pass urineand burning pain on uri-
nating. Urine may be foul-smelling or
contain blood. There may be fever and
chills, and lower abdominal discomfort.
Cystitis is common in women because
the urethrais short, making it easier for
bacteria to pass into the bladder. A
bladder calculus(stone), a bladder tumour,
or a urethral stricturecan obstruct urine
flow and increase the risk of infection.
In men, cystitis is rare; it usually occurs
when an obstruction, such as an en-
slarged prostate gland (see prostate,
enlarged), compresses the urethra. Cys-
titis is children is often associated with
a structural abnormality of the ureters,
which allows reflux (backward flow) of
urine. The use of catheters (see catheter-
ization,urinary) also carries the risk of
infection. Diabetics are especially sus-
ceptible to urinary tract infections.
Symptoms of mild cystitis may be re-
lieved by drinking 1 pint (^1 ⁄ 2 liter) of fluid
every 4 hours. Any infection is treated
with antibiotic drugs.
cystoceleA swelling in the vagina that
is formed where the bladderpushes
against weakened tissues in the vaginal
wall. Cystocele may be associated with
a prolapsed uterus (see uterus, prolapse
of). If the urethra is pulled out of posi-
tion by a cystocele, it may cause stress
incontinenceor incomplete emptying of
the bladder, leading to infection of the
retained urine (see cystitis). Pelvic floor
exercisesmay relieve symptoms. Surgery
may be used to lift and tighten the tis-
sues at the front of the vagina.
cystometryA procedure used to assess
bladderfunction and to detect abnor-
malities of the nervessupplying the
bladder or bladder muscle. Cystometry
is used to investigate urinary incontinence
or poor bladder emptying caused by
damage to bladder muscles or disrupt-
ed nerve control of these muscles.CYST-/CYSTO- CYSTOMETRYC
cysts, breast cysts, Baker’s cysts, and cysts
that form around parasites in diseases
such as hydatid disease or amoebiasis.
Cysts may need to be removed surgical-
ly if they disrupt the function of tissues.
cyst-/cysto-Relating to the bladder, as
in cystitis (inflammation of the bladder).
cystectomySurgical removal of the blad-
der, used for treating bladder cancer (see
bladder tumours). It is followed by con-
struction of an alternative channel for
urine, usually ending in a stomain the
lower abdomen (see urinary diversion).
In men, the prostate glandand seminal
vesiclesare also removed, usually result-
ing in impotence. In women, the uterus,
ovaries, and fallopiantubesare removed.
After cystectomy an external pouch is
worn for the collection of urine.
cysticercosisAn infection, rare in devel-
oped countries, characterized by the
presence of cystsin muscles and in the
brain that are formed by the larval stage
of the pork tapeworm.
cystic fibrosisA genetic disorder, char-
acterized by a tendency to develop
chronic lung infections and an inability
to absorb fats and other nutrients from
food. The main feature of cystic fibrosis
(CF) is secretion of sticky mucus, which
is unable to flow freely, in the nose,
throat, airways, and intestines.
The course and severity of the disease
vary. Typically, a child passes unformed,
pale, oily, foul-smelling faeces and may
fail to thrive. Often, growth is stunted
and the child has recurrent respiratory
infections. Without prompt treatment,
pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiect-
asismay develop, causing lung damage.
Most male sufferers and some females
are infertile. CF causes excessive loss of
salt in sweat, and heatstrokeand col-
lapse may occur in hot weather.
Prompt treatment with intensive physio-
therapyand antibiotics helps to minimize
lung damage from chest infections.
Pancreatinand a diet rich in proteins
and calories are given to bring about
weight gain and more normal faeces.
However, despite treatment, most people
with CF suffer permanent lung damage
and have a reduced life expectancy. Lung
or heart–lung transplants have produced
good results, and specificgene therapy