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uprising, the defeated Chakhar rebels were relocated from their home
territories to areas in Xuanhua and Datong subprefectures and
reformed into two wings under directLifanyuanauthority. The Cha-
kharhoshuu, consequently, becamegūsabanners without a hereditary
jasagruling elite. All Chakhar grazing lands became part of the state
military system, albeit nominallydistinct for certain purposes.^23 Stead-
ily increasing state orchestrations of environmental relations was the
trend for the formation of all Qing banner Mongol identity,gūsaand
hoshuu.
The operation of state herd complexes, which were subject to the
most sustained supervision, is representative. TheTaipusipastures were
the core of a larger complex collectively called the Imperial Horse
Pastures (Yumachang) that included the regular Manchu Eight Banner
gūsaherds and those of the Board of Rites. The complex was mainly for
gūsabanner horse herds, although camels also grazed in their own
pastures. The complex’s primary distinction was between mare (kema;
Ma: geo) and gelding (shanma; Ma: akta) herds (qun; Ma: adun).
Geldings were used for most regular tasks, while mare herds were
breeding grounds that included stallions (erma; Ma:ajirgan), colts, and
foals. Most male colts were gelded at three years and sent to gelding
herds.^24
Breeding, not consumption, was the primary relational nexus between
humans and livestock in the state pastures and, so, was regimented
accordingly. Management was complicated by different livestock species’
varying nutritional requirements and optimal breeding seasons. Even
their illnesses were treated by“Mongol physicians”(Menggu yishi),
who were veterinarians in practice, if not in name.^25 All herds were
subject to annual inspections to determine birth and mortality rates,
culminating in a major herd reorganization (junqi), or round-up, every
three years for horses and sheep, every six years for camels and cattle.
Round-ups were intended to ensure that female livestock could meet
their own statutory reproductive obligations beyond natural rate of
replacement.
Three mares or ewes were to produce one offspring between them
every three years while the quota for cows or mare camels was set at
one every six years. Such rates governedfluctuations in numbers of herds.
In 1740 , for example, eight new mare herds and sixteen new gelding herds
were added to accommodate an 18 percent increase of 7 , 224 horses over
the forty-thousand head norm. Number of head within a herd was subject
to similar changes as in a 1766 decision to increase the averageTaipusi
The Nature of Imperial Pastoralism in Southern Inner Mongolia 123
