80 Da Qing huidian(GX), 668 a; MWLF, QL 3 / 3 / 23 [ 03 - 171 - 0208 - 004 ].
81 MWLF, QL 12 / 7 / 4 [ 03 - 0172 - 0680 - 002 ].
82 MWLF, QL 14 / 3 / 28 [ 03 - 0172 - 0682 - 005 ].
83 Zhao Yi,“Menggu shi lao,” 16. The Qianlong emperor similarly equated
Mongol“dairy products”(rubing) with“grain”(liang);“Passing through the
Mongol Tribes,”Qing Gaozong yuzhi shi 1 : 289 b. Eighteenth-century Han
observers also viewed milk products as“grain”among Tibetan pastoralists;
Zhou Ailian,Xizang jiyou, 115.
84 MWLF, QL 26 / 9 / 5 [ 03 - 0179 - 1893 - 025 ], 26 / 9 / 15 [ 03 - 0179 - 1894 - 013 ].
85 MWLF, QL 1 / 12 / 11 [ 03 - 174 - 1481 - 001 ].
86 Qing Gaozong yuzhi shi 1 : 153 a.
87 Qing emperors were indeed receiving Mongol dairy tribute, in addition to
actual livestock, of“sour fermented cakes [kūru], milk, butter, koumiss, etc.”;
MWLF, QL 14 / 10 / 19 [ 03 - 171 - 0373 - 011 ]. Koumiss in particular formed sub-
stantial parts of the Khorchin and Ordos banner tributes from 1674 , although
later reduced to token amounts;Da Qing huidian shili(GX), 10 : 1188 a,b;Da
Qing huidian(GX), 858 a.
88 One representative example that views agriculture as progressive is Zhang
Yongjiang,“Liangshi xuqiu,” 30 – 42. A representative critical view of agri-
culture’s environmental effects is Yun Heyi, “Qingdai yilai Neimenggu
daliang kaiken tudi,” 8 – 11. For a current evaluation linking grassland deg-
radation to agriculture, see Da-lin-tai,“Zhidu yu zhengce,” 176 – 92. For a
more comprehensive view, see Chen Shan, “Inner Asian Grassland
Degradation.”
89 See, for example, Cheng Chongde,“Qingdai qianqi dui Menggu de fengjin
zhengce,” 26 – 31 ; Sun Zhe,“Qing Qianqi Menggu diqu de renkou,’ 41 – 50 ;
Reardon-Anderson,Reluctant Pioneers 37 – 45 , 48 – 65 ; Yu Tongyuan and
Wang Laigang, “Qingdai zhong-yuan renkou bei yi,” 327 – 40 ; Zhu-sa,
18 – 2018 - 20 shiji chu dongbu Neimenggu nonggeng.
90 Koubei San Ting zhi, 1 b.
91 Serruys,“Chinese in Southern Mongolia,” 41 – 44.
92 QSL,KX 51 / 5 / 18 , 6 : 478 a.
93 Calculations based onfigures in Li Xiangjun,Qingdai huangzheng yanjiu,
123 – 47.
94 MWLF, QL 11 / 4 / 12 [ 03 - 170 - 0059 - 001 ]. For Shanxi’s disasterfigures that
year, see Li Xiangjun,Qingdai huangzheng yanjiu, 165.
95 For an administrative chronology of these subprefectures, see, Niu Pinghan,
Qingdai zhengqu yan’ge zongbiao, 15 – 16 , 52. Regional administrative
boundaries are so complicated that locales like Guihua have been mapped as
part of both Shanxi and Inner Mongolia; Tan Qixiang, ed.,Zhongguo lishi
ditu ji, 7 , 20 , 58. See also point # 16 in the bilingual unpaginated“compiling
principles”sections.
96 Qing Gaozong yuzhi shi 14 : 282 a–b.
97 Zhang Yongjiang,Qindai fanbu yanjiu, 260 – 315 ; Yu Tongyuan and bei yi,
“Qingdai zhongyuan renkou,” 330.
98 Zhang Yongjiang,“Lun Qingdai monan Menggu Diqu,” 29 – 40.
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