99 For an analysis of Han agricultural migration under late Qing conditions, see
Su De,“Guanyu Qingmo Neimenggu xibu,” 434 – 48.
100 Liu et al.,“The Origin of Remnant Forest Stands,” 139 , 148 – 49 , 150.
101 MWLF, QL 5 / 1 / 29 [ 03 - 175 - 1553 - 019 ]. These thirteen companies were
assigned to lama herders.
102 Gao,“The Retreat of the Horses,” 110 – 11 ;Hangzhou Baqi zhu fangying
zhilue, 170.
103 Fuzhou zhufang zhi, 644 – 45 , 669 ; Yan Gao,“The Retreat of the Horses,”
113 ;Hangzhou Baqi zhu fangying zhilue, 160 ;Zhu Yue Baqi zhi, 290 – 91.
Niu Guanjie estimates that there were about two hundred thousand head
under banner and Green Standard management in the eighteenth century,
but hisfigures for Kangxi and Yongzheng era Guangzhou, for example,
overestimate the garrison’s three thousand head by 100 and 200 percent,
respectively;“Qingdai mazheng chu tan,” 58.
104 Fuzhou zhufang zhi, 645 – 46 , 669. Supplementary purchases were also made
in Sichuan, but these horses, while more acclimated to south China condi-
tions, were generally too small for warfare.
105 Yan Gao,“The Retreat of the Horses,” 110 – 11 ;Hangzhou Baqi zhu fangy-
ing zhilue, 170 – 71.
106 Yongzhengchao Manwen zhupi,# 4212 , 2 : 2172 – 74.
107 QSL,YZ 8 / 9 / 29 , 8 : 311 a-b; MWLF, YZ 10 / 10 / 2 [ 03 - 0173 - 1027 - 010 ]; YZ
10 / 10 / 19 [ 03 - 0173 - 1027 - 009 ]. The reported yield seems too low for the area
under cultivation.
108 MWLF, QL 12 / 2 / 6 [ 03 - 0173 - 1082 - 002 ]; QL 4 / 2 / 14 [ 03 - 0173 - 1054 - 001 ].
The 1747 deliberation cited a similar formulation from“the seventh year of
the Yongzheng emperor ( 1729 ) as a precedent; MWLF, QL 12 / 2 / 6 [ 03 - 0173 -
1082 - 002 ].
109 MWLF, QL 12 / 7 / 4 [ 03 - 0172 - 0680 - 002 ].
110 MWLF, YZ 10 / 10 / 19 [ 03 - 171 - 0318 - 011 ].
111 See, for example, MWLF, YZ 10 / 10 / 2 [ 03 - 0173 - 1027 - 010 ].
112 Contemporary problems rooted in conflicts between pastoral and agricul-
tural“cultures”continue to contribute to pastoral degradation in the IMAR;
E. Erdenijab,“An Economic Assessment,” 191 – 92 ; for a study of the signifi-
cance of mobility in contemporary Mongolia, see B. Erdenebaatar,“Socio-
economic Aspects.”
113 MWLF, QL 12 / 2 / 6 [ 03 - 0173 - 1082 - 002 ]; 7 / 3 / 26 [ 03 - 0172 - 0463 - 001 ]. For
Han-Mongol collusion in illicit cultivation, see, for example, MWLF, YZ 11 /
8 / 23 [ 03 - 0174 - 1489 - 002 and- 003 ].
114 MWLF, YZ 11 / 8 / 28 [ 03 - 0173 - 1032 - 021 ]; QL 14 / 4 / 13 [ 03 - 0172 - 0620 - 005 ].
In a 1742 report on Han cultivators in Guihua Shanxi Governor Ka-er-ji-
shan mentioned 1691 as the date when the Qing state began to promote
Mongol agriculture. He did add, however, that Mongols“continued to rely
on grasslands for livestock breeding”;Qingdai zhouzhe huibian,QL 7 / 10 /
15 , 69 – 70.
115 Yongzhengchao Manwen zhupi,# 2214 , 1 : 1 , 233 – 34.
116 MWLF, QL 15 / 4 / 28 [ 03 - 0173 - 1089 - 02 ], 15 / 6 / 14 [ 03 - 0172 - 0621 - 003 ].
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