8 Belin, “Jin Yunnan zhongren tushuo,” 13 : 13. 6 a–b; Shunning fuzhi,
1 : 508 – 9. The Kawa (now the PRC minority Wa), allies of the Luohei
(now the PRC minority Wa) described as wild in 1770 , were doubtlessly
from the“savage”(sheng) branch that“plundered”rather than the“civil-
ized”(shu)branchthat“protected routes”;Yongchang fuzhi, 333 a.
9 Tai (“Dai”in Chinese) is a dialect group that includes“Thai”but is not
synonymous with it.
10 Leach, Political Systems, 286. Leach shows that locals could consider
themselves both Kachin (Jingpo) and Shan for generations or shift between
the two ( 1 – 2 , 61 ). Note also his comments on the necessity for a historicist
revision of functionalist anthropology ( 282 – 83 ).
11 Leach,Political Systems, 56 – 57 , 204 ; Thant,The Making of Modern Burma,
24 ; Gong Yin,Tusi zhidu, 121 – 24. Leach’sinfluential views have been sub-
jected to considerable criticism over the pastfifty years; François Robinne and
Mandy Sadan, eds.,Social Dynamics in the Highlands of Southeast Asia.
However, James C. Scott has affirmed his analysis, especially ofgumlaostate
resistance; Scott,The Art of Not Being Governed, 213 – 16.
12 Winichakul,Siam Mapped, 74 – 77. Different concepts of inner and outer
frontiers have been briefly discussed in studies of the Han city as it exists in
both core and periphery; Skinner,“The Hierarchy of Local Systems,” 318 – 19 ;
Gaubatz,Beyond the Great Wall, 24 – 25. Relevant issues of frontier urbaniza-
tion also inform Liu Jingchun’sQingdai huangtu gaoyuan diqu. For some
important preliminary connections between boundaries and ethnic groups, see
Teng,Taiwan’s Imagined Geography, 120 – 21 ; Shepherd,Statecraft and Pol-
itical Economy, 190 – 91.
13 For chronologies of the respective establishments of these administrative units,
see, Niu Pinghan,Qingdai zhengqu yan’ge zongbiao, 386 (Shunning), 392
(Tengyue), 389 – 90 (Pu’er), 395 (Yongchang).
14 Wang Hongzuo,“Diannan shi yishu,” 8 : 386.
15 Zhou Huafeng,“Shang zongdu Yongchang shiyi tiaoyi,” 13 : 10. 12 a–b.
16 Whyte,“Health Identities and Subjectivities,” 13.
17 Brown and Inhorn,“Disease, Ecology and Human Behavior,” 190 , 191. For
an overview of past human-disease relations informed by relevant interdiscip-
linary approaches, see Newson,“A Historical-Ecological Perspective on Epi-
demic Disease.”
18 McNeill,Mosquito Empires, 4 – 5.
19 McNeill,Mosquito Empires, 6.
20 See, for example, Benedict,Bubonic Plague, 169 ; Rogaski,Hygienic Modern-
ity, 9 ; Walker,“The Early Modern Japanese State and Ainu Vaccinations,”
121 – 60.
21 Perdue,China Marches West, 46 – 48.
22 Qing Gaozong yuzhi shi 4 : 74 a. Also note Qianlong’s preface to “Bishu
Shanzhuang bai yunshi”[One hundred verses from the Imperial Retreat to
Avoid the Heat] inRehe zhi, 2 : 840 – 41.
23 Newson,“A Historical-Ecological Perspective on Epidemic Disease’;“Small-
pox Fact Sheet/Smallpox Disease Overview”; Campbell and Lee,“Mortality
and Household,” 316 , 318.
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