24 Qingdai Sanxing Fu Dutong Yamen Man Han wen dang’an yibian,# 74 ,
204 – 05 ; Chang,“Disease and Its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy and the Mili-
tary,” 177 – 97 ;Chongde san nian Manwen dang’an, 88 , 99 , 113 – 14. Chang
demonstrates through numerous examples Hong Taiji’s concerns about small
pox. For an account of smallpox devastations among Tümed Mongols during
the Ming, see Fisher,“Smallpox, Salesmen and Sectarians,” 4 – 8.
25 Tan Qian,Bei you lu, 355 ;Qianlongchao neifu chaoben‘Lifan yuan zeli,’ 27.
Han urbanization created small pox threats to indigenous peoples even in
“Mongol”steppe zones south of the Great Wall like the Qinghai-Gansu
border, where the“most fearful”outbreak occurred among“an extraordinary
number”of three hundred Ordos Mongols involved in logistical operations in
Xining during the Khoshot uprising in 1723 – 24 ; Nian Gengyao,Nian Gen-
gyao Man Han zouzhe, 103.
26 Marks,“Geography Is Not Destiny,” 13 – 17 ; Guneratne,“Modernization, the
State, and the Construction of a Tharu Identity,” 753 – 54.
27 Cai Yurong,“Chou Dian shi shu,” 8 : 433.
28 Cai Yurong,“Chou Dian shi shu,” 8 : 436.
29 Cai Yurong,“Chou Dian shi shu,” 8 : 429.
30 See citations in Duan Wei and Li Jun,“Qingdai yimin yu Yunnan shengtai,”
264 – 65.
31 QSL,QL 13 / 3 /“end of month,” 13 : 104 a– 05 a, QL 13 / 11 /“end of month,”
18 : 252 a.
32 Li Zhongqing,Zhongguo xinan bianjiang de shehui jingji, 153 – 54 , 269 , 296 ;
Daoguang Yunnan zhi chao, 11 : 525 , 527.
33 Li Zhongqing,Zhongguo xinan bianjiang de shehui jingji, 282. Miners’
demands were, of course, only one source of rising food prices. For a contem-
porary summary of causes, seeQSLQL 38 /i.c. 3 / 30 , 20 : 510 b– 11 b.
34 For an analysis of the socioeconomic constraints on agrarian expansion in
Yunnan, see Lee,“Food Supply and Population,” 738 – 41.
35 Liu Kun,Nanzhong za shuo, 11 : 355. Liu Kun and Zhang Yunsui use converse
terms for“swiddening”;dao geng huo zhongandhuo zhong dao geng,
respectively. For spatial distribution of crops, see Xu Junfeng, “Qingdai
Yunnan liangshi zuowu,” 86 – 87. For an important analysis of the effects of
highland and lowland basin (bazi) ecology on Yunnan’s social and historical
dynamics, see Ma,“The ZhaozhouBaziSociety in Yunnan,” 131 – 55.
36 Xu and Wilkes,“State Simplifications of Land-Use,” 544 ; Yin Shaoting,
People and Forests, 79 – 82 , 98 – 99 ; Osborne,“Highlands and Lowlands”
Daniels,“Environmental Degradation, Part II,” 3 – 6.
37 Li Zhongqing,Zhongguo xinan bianjiang de shehui jingji, 107 – 11 ; Averill,
“The Shed People and the Opening of the Yangzi Highlands,” 87 – 88 ; Liu
Lingping, Qingdai Diandong diqu yimin kaifa,” 235.
38 Osborne,“The Local Politics of Land Reclamation,” 4 – 5 , 24.
39 Weiyuan tingzhi, 3. 50 a, 373. Cited in Liu Lingping,“Diandong diqu yimin
kaifa,” 235.
40 Scott,The Art of Not Being Governed,ix–x, 9 , 190 – 207. For the conceptual-
ization of Zomia, see van Schendel,“Geographies of Knowing, Geographies
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