254 sØrensen
exception of the influence afforded by the Tibetan dominion. Although the
related manuscripts are in some cases multilingual, Esoteric Buddhist scrip-
tures are mainly dominated by Chinese and Tibetan texts.
The Chinese textual material reflects by and large the historical develop-
ment of Esoteric Buddhism in China, excluding the full-blown Tantric texts,
as mentioned above. The Tibetan material consists mainly of Tantric texts, but
has also standard canonical scriptures relating to earlier formations of Esoteric
Buddhism.8 Some cases of religious and cultural crossover took place among
the Buddhist communities at Dunhuang.
Generally speaking, examples of Esoteric Buddhist art are not discernible
at Dunhuang and among the votive paintings, sketches, etc., until the early 8th
century with the 9th century being the most prolific period. The early forms of
Esoteric Buddhism on the Chinese side are mainly represented in the manu-
scripts, but rarely in iconographical examples.
Before going to a discussion of the special characteristics of Esoteric
Buddhism at Dunhuang during the period under investigation, let us briefly
back trace what we know about the early developments. Beginning in the 7th
century, Esoteric Buddhism was primarily represented at Shazhou (沙州)
through texts, with very few examples of related iconography available.9 In this
sense, Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang deviated somewhat from that current
in the Central provinces of China, where the tradition had become increas-
ingly important in the course of the 6th century. In contrast to this, we do not
begin to see strong Esoteric Buddhist features in the manuscripts or in the
local religious art until well into the 8th century. In fact, it would appear that
the appearance of wall paintings depicting Ekādaśamukha, the Eleven-headed
Avalokiteśvara, or illustrations of scenes from the Uṣṇīṣavijāyadhāraṇīsūtra,10
are among the earliest, bona fide indicators of Esoteric Buddhist presence
at Dunhuang.11 Interestingly, but perhaps not so surprisingly given the wide
spread popularity of this scripture and its powerful spell, it has occasioned a
number of wall paintings in the form of scriptural tableaux (Chin. jingbian
經變), similar to those we know from non-Esoteric Buddhist sūtras such as
8 The reader is referred to the chapter by Sam van Schaik elsewhere in this volume.
9 For a general discussion of early Esoteric Buddhist art in China, including that of
Dunhuang, see Sørensen, Henrik H., “Esoteric Buddhist Art up to the Tang,” in Esoteric
Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia, ed. Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H. Sørensen, Richard
K. Payne (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 255–62.
10 T. 967.19. There are different translations of this important scripture, but the one ascribed
to Buddhapalita is the most important among the manuscripts from Dunhuang.
11 See Peng, Shenmi de mijiao, 18, 31, 60, 116.