esoteric buddhism at the crossroads 263
in the course of the 9th and 10th centuries spread eastward to the Central prov-
inces of China.
Despite the presence of Tantric Buddhism during the sixty or so years the
Tibetan rule over Shazhou lasted, there are surprisingly few explicitly Tantric
Buddhist images to be found in the extant Dunhuang material. The reason for
this is not clear, but it could be taken as an indication that there were no, or at
least very few, Tibetan Buddhist artists available in the area.31
3 Esoteric Buddhist Scriptures Reflecting Interculturality and
Interreligiosity
Interculturalism, not only of the Tibeto-Chinese variety, but also of the Indo-
Chinese kind, is also evident among the Dunhuang manuscripts pertaining to
Esoteric Buddhism. Moreover, we also have examples of interreligiosity, in so far
as a number of Chinese Esoteric Buddhist texts reflect strong influences from
Daoism.32 While some of these developments document currents going
from the West to the East, we certainly also find examples of influences
going in the other direction.
Some speculation has been presented concerning the extent to which
Tibetan rulers of Shazhou tried to steer or control religious practices among
the population there.33 Beyond the usual concern for regulation of the
31 For a survey of Esoteric Buddhist art and iconography at Dunhuang during the Tang,
see Wang, Michelle, “From Dhāraṇī to Maṇḍala: A Study of Mogao Cave 14 and Esoteric
Buddhist Art of the Tang Dynasty (618–907)” (Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 2008). It is
worth noting, in this connection, that full-blown Tantric Buddhist imagery is also largely
absent from the Indian tradition during the same period (in effect not being documented
until well after the beginning of the first millenium). The exact reason for this is not
known, and has so far not been properly investigated. However, there may be two answers
to this: (1) either they did not exist at this time, or (2) they have not been found. Personally
I tend towards the first answer, but further research into this interesting and so-far,
enigmatic question, will have to be done, before a serious solution to this question can
be had.
32 This material is relatively extensive covering proper scriptures, ritual texts, panegyrics,
invocations, prayers: cf. P. 3810, P. 3270, P. 3874, P. 3835, S. 2498, etc.
33 See Hao Chunwen 郝春文, Tang houqi Wudai Song chu Dunhuang sheng ni de shehui
shenghuo 唐后期五代宋初敦煌僧尼的社会生活 [The Living Conditions of Monks and
Nuns Societies at Dunhuang during the Late Tang, Five Dynasties and Early Song] (Beijing:
Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1998), 6–73. For a useful compilation of Tibetan