46 Taenzer
Although only a fraction of the manuscripts extant from the time of the rule
of the Return-to-Allegiance Army, namely the local rule over Dunhuang, could
be included in this chapter, certain tendencies are visible. Since dated manu-
scripts referring to the reign of the Zhang family (848–915) are not numerous,
it is often not possible to know when a certain development started. Although
more information is available from the time of the rule of the Cao clan
(915–11th century), it does not necessarily mean that some developments had
not already started under the reign of the Zhang family.
However, one thing may be concluded with certainty: after the clergy had
collaborated in ousting the Tibetans, the fact that their temple peasants—a
contributor of income—were temporarily released must have darkened the
relationship with their regent Zhang Yichao.
Under the rule of the Zhang clan there was no reorganisation of the digni-
taries of the clergy since personages who had risen under Tibetan rule contin-
ued to receive a post under the new rulers as well. As monks were paid to write
for the administration, and as work which used to be corvé was now organised
locally in worship club-like formations, there seems to have been less govern-
mental control of the people as well as of the religious institutions.
During the Cao regime the local administration may have had to rely on the
clergy accompanying embassies to other oases. This shows that political inter-
ests were attended to by the clergy.
The overall change of the political and economic situation in Dunhuang, as
well as new possibilities, may have influenced the formation of worship clubs;
it seems that people no longer gathered only for worship but also for discuss-
ing economic matters while eating and drinking.
With the local rule over Dunhuang, certainly a new era began as far as the
conception of the rulers themselves and their relation to Buddhism was con-
cerned. It was then that the depiction of the family of Zhang Yichao (cave 156),
Cao Yijin (曹議金, r. 915–935) (cave 98) and Cao Yuanzhong (曹元忠, r. 944–
974) (son of Cao Yijin, cave 61) started in the Buddhist cave temples. Hitherto
no ruler had commissioned the decoration of a cave in which he and his rela-
tives featured so prominently.109 This is just one of the aspects of local rule of
the Return-to-Allegiance Army which could not be included. Further research
is necessary, which is not in the scope of this paper.
109 The meaning of this has often been interpreted as legimitation of power through
Buddhism but it may just as well mean that the relationship between the ruler and the
clergy got closer, that is, secular elements were included in the religious realm.