140
ruled by him directly, and acted
as buffer zones between Muslim
and Christian areas. Some vassal
states, including Bulgaria, Serbia,
and Bosnia, were eventually
absorbed into the larger empire;
others retained their vassal status.Government and military
The Ottomans evolved a strong
system of government that
combined local administration
with central control. The sultan—
whose brothers were customarily
murdered at his accession—was
supreme ruler. He had a council of
advisers, later a deputy, who ruled
on his behalf. Local areas were
ruled by military governors (beys)
under the emperor’s overall control,
but local councils kept the beys’
authority in check.
Non-Muslim communities
within the empire were allowed a
degree of self-rule through a system
of separate courts called millets.
The millets allowed Armenian,
Jewish, and Orthodox Christian
communities to rule according to
their own laws in cases that did not
involve Muslims. This balanced
combination of central and local
control enabled the Ottomans toTHE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE
Janissaries wore distinctive
uniforms and, unlike other military
units, were paid salaries and lived in
barracks. They were the first corps to
make extensive use of firearms.hold together a large and diverse
empire for much longer than would
have been possible with a more
wholly centralized system.Mehmet II Mehmet (1432–1481), the son of
the Ottoman emperor Murad II,
was born in Edirne, Turkey. As
was usual for an heir to the
Ottoman throne, Mehmet had an
Islamic education, and at 11 years
old was appointed governor of a
province, Amasya, to gain
experience of leadership. A year
later, Murad abdicated in favor of
his son, but shortly afterward was
called back from his retirement in
Anatolia to lend military support.
“If you are the Sultan,” Mehmet
wrote, “come and lead your
armies. If I am the Sultan, I order
you to come and lead my armies.”Mehmet’s second, main, rule
was from 1451 to 1481. His
victory at Constantinople was
followed by a string of further
conquests: the Morea (southern
Greece), Serbia, the coast of the
Black Sea, Wallachia, Bosnia,
and part of the Crimea. He
rebuilt Constantinople as his
capital and founded mosques
there, while also allowing
Christians and Jews to worship
freely. Known for his ruthless
military leadership, he also
welcomed humanists to the
capital, encouraged culture,
and founded a university.The Ottoman army was also
crucial to the empire’s success.
It was technically advanced—
employing cannon from the siege
of Constantinople onward—and
tactically sophisticated. Its high-
speed cavalry units could turn
what looked like a retreat into a
devastatingly effective flanking
attack, surrounding the enemy in
a crescent-shaped formation that
would take them by surprise.
At the heart of the army were
the Janissaries, a unit of infantry
that began as the imperial guard
and expanded to become the most
feared elite force of the period.
Initially, the unit was made up of
men who, as children, had been
abducted from Christian families
in the Balkans. Under the devsirme
system, which was also known as
the “blood tax” or “tribute in blood,”
boys aged from eight to 18 were
taken by Ottoman military, forcibly
converted to Islam, and sent to live
with Turkish families, where they
learned the Turkish language and
customs. They were then given
rigorous military training, and
any who showed particular talent
were selected for specialized roles
ranging from archers to engineers.US_138-141_Fall_of_Constantinople.indd 140 15/02/2016 16:42
141
Naturalistic motifs in cobalt blues
and chrome greens surround Islamic
calligraphy in these Iznik wall tiles,
commissioned for the Topkapi Palace
during the classical age of Turkish art.reinforced its fortifications as well
as adding many mosques, bazaars,
and water fountains. The city’s
dazzling centerpiece was the royal
palace of Topkapi, commissioned
by Sultan Mehmet II in around the
1460s. Masons, stonecutters, and
carpenters were summoned from
far and wide to ensure the complex
would be an enduring monument.
It contained mosques, a hospital,
bakeries, and a mint among much
else, and attached to it were
imperial societies of artists and
craftsmen who produced some of
the finest work in the empire.Gradual decline
This cultural flowering continued
after Suleiman’s death, but the
empire faced serious challenges inother arenas. A rising population
was putting pressure on available
land; there were military threats
and internal revolts; and defeat by
a coalition of Catholic forces at
the sea battle of Lepanto in 1571
prevented the empire’s expansion
further along the European side of
the Mediterranean.
The Ottoman empire steadily
lost prestige and influence until
its decline earned it the title “the
sick man of Europe.” Incapable of
responding to the convulsions of
the 19th century, it lost territory
and struggled against a rising tide
of nationalism among its conquered
peoples. Its long history finally
ended with defeat in World War I
and the foundation of the modern
Turkish state by Kemal Attatürk. ■THE EARLY MODERN ERA
Internal divisions
weaken the Byzantine
Empire from within.The Ottomans
attack and capture
Constantinople.The large, pluralist
Ottoman Empire spreads
Islam but fails to create a
single united culture.The Ottomans
govern conquered lands by
respecting local customs
and allowing limited
self-rule.Ottoman armies
conquer and pacify large
parts of eastern Europe
and the Middle East.Janissaries were not permitted to
marry until they retired from active
duty, but they received special
benefits and privileges designed to
secure their sole allegiance to the
ruler. Although they made up only
a small proportion in the Ottoman
army, they had a leading role and
played a key part in many victories,
including those over the Egyptians,
Hungarians, and Constantinople.The Ottoman heyday
The empire reached its peak under
Emperor Suleiman the Magnificent.
He forged an alliance with the
French against the Habsburg
rulers of the Holy Roman Empire,
and signed a treaty with the
Safavid rulers of Persia that divided
Armenia and Georgia between the
two powers and put most of Iraq
into Ottoman hands. Suleiman
conquered much of Hungary, and
even laid siege to Vienna, although
he did not succeed in taking it.
The Ottomans took their Islamic
faith to their territories, building
mosques everywhere—and with
the mosques came scholarship and
education. Ottoman cities were
impressive. Constantinople itself
was virtually rebuilt: the OttomansUS_138-141_Fall_of_Constantinople.indd 141 15/02/2016 16:42