The History Book

188

See also: The founding of Baghdad 86–93 ■ Brunelleschi designs the dome of

Florence Cathedral 152–55 ■ Diderot publishes the Encyclopédie 192–95 ■

Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species 236–37

E

nglish scientist Isaac

Newton published the first

edition of his Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy,

or Principia, in 1687. The book

examines the way objects behave

in motion, describes gravity, and

explains the movements of planets

and satellites. Although it built

on the work of earlier scientists

such as Galileo, Huygens, and

Kepler, the work was revolutionary.

By illustrating how the same

force—gravity—is responsible for

movements both on Earth and in

the heavens, it united two scientific

realms that had previously been

thought separate.

A lasting influence

Newton’s use of mathematics-based

theory to explain phenomena was

part of a wider scientific revolution.

English essayist Francis Bacon

insisted that scientists test their

observations using reasoned

argument, and French philosopher

René Descartes championed the use

of mathematics and logic to address

scientific questions. By emphasizing

the importance of human reason,

such philosophers broke free from

the notion that explanations of

the physical world depended on

Christian faith and church doctrine.

This paved the way for the

intellectual movement called the

Enlightenment, and even for the

work of later scientists such as

Albert Einstein, who modified

and refined Newton’s theories. ■

I HAVE IN THIS TREATISE

CULTIVATED MATHEMATICS

SO FAR AS IT REGARDS

PHILOSOPHY

NEWTON PUBLISHES PRINCIPIA (1687)

IN CONTEXT

FOCUS

Scientific revolution

BEFORE

1543 Copernicus publishes

his heliocentric version of

the universe.

1609 German Johannes

Kepler describes the planets’

elliptical orbits and speeds.

1620 Francis Bacon publishes

the Novum Organum.

1638 Italian Galileo Galilei’s

Discourses lay the foundation

of the science of mechanics.

1660 The Royal Society is

founded in England.

AFTER

1690 Dutchman Christiaan

Huygens publishes his theory

of the wave motion of light,

Traité de la lumière.

1905 Albert Einstein’s

Special Theory of Relativity

shows that Newton’s

Laws of Motion are only

approximately correct.

[Newton] spread the light

of mathematics on a science

which... had remained in

the darkness of conjectures

and hypotheses.

Alexis Clairaut

French mathematician and

astronomer (1747)

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189

See also: Marco Polo reaches Shangdu 104–05 ■ Christopher Columbus

reaches America 142–47 ■ The Treaty of Tordesillas 148–51 ■

The voyage of the Mayflower 172 –73

I

n 1768, British navigator James

Cook sailed to Tahiti to make

scientific observations of the

Transit of Venus across the Sun, a

rare event that could be seen only

from the southern hemisphere.

Having recorded the event, Cook

sailed on in search of the rumored

“unknown land of the South.” He

mapped the New Zealand coast,

and then traveled northwest,

discovering the eastern coast of

Australia in the process. Claiming

the land for Britain, he named it

New South Wales. Working closely

with botanists Joseph Banks and

Daniel Solander, he also produced

unique records of the indigenous

peoples, flora, and fauna.

An enduring link

Cook’s voyages were part of a wider

tradition of European exploration

of the Pacific by navigators such

as Dutchman Abel Tasman, after

whom Tasmania is named. Cook

forged the enduring connection

between Australasia and Europe,

beginning a process that continued

with colonization, the transportation

of British convicts into exile, and

the founding of cities such as

Sydney and Melbourne.

In his later voyages, Cook used

the chronometer, newly developed

by Englishman John Harrison. It

facilitated accurate timekeeping at

sea, and so the calculation of precise

longitude, which was invaluable to

Cook in charting his discoveries. ■

THE EARLY MODERN ERA

AS FAR AS I THINK

IT POSSIBLE FOR

MAN TO GO

THE VOYAGES OF CAPTAIN COOK (1768–1779)

IN CONTEXT

FOCUS

Pacific and Australasian

exploration

BEFORE

1642–1644 Dutchman Abel

Tasman becomes the first

European to reach New

Zealand and Tasmania.

1768 –1771 James Cook makes

his first voyage to Australia

and New Zealand.

1772–1775 Cook sails close

to Antarctica, and around the

southern Pacific.

1776 –1779 Cook’s third

voyage takes him to Hawaii,

where he is killed in a fight

with local people.

AFTER

1788 The first convicts

from Britain arrive at the Port

Jackson (Sydney Harbour)

penal colony.

1802 British navigator

Matthew Flinders

circumnavigates Australia.

We were regaled with

the pleasing sight of the

Mountains of New Zealand—

after an absence from Land

of 17 weeks and 3 days...

how changed the scene!

Richard Pickersgill,

Third lieutenant on the Resolution

(1773)

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