242
See also: The Battle of Quebec 191 ■ The construction of the Suez Canal 230–35 ■
The Second Opium War 254–55 ■ The Berlin Conference 258–59 ■ The Sikh
Empire is founded 264T
he Siege of Lucknow,
which took place between
May and November 1857,
led to scenes that were duplicated
across much of north-central
India during the Indian Mutiny
of 1857–58: of British enclaves
enduring great suffering at the
hands of previously loyal local
troops. When the British began to
restore order, the retribution was no
less severe. The violence from both
sides shocked the public and led to
immediate calls for reform.
The mutiny began when the
Indian troops—sepoys—became
convinced that the cartridges of
their new rifles had been greased
with cow and pig fat, offensive to
Hindus and Muslims alike. But
its roots lay in the dislocation
that many in India felt at British
control—the uprooting of traditional
rulers, the apparent threat to local
religions, and the aggressive
assertion of alien rule.
Britain’s initial response after
the mutiny was intended to
reassure India of Britain’s peaceful
intentions toward it, but in realityit underlined the fact that India was
now entirely subservient to Britain,
both economically and politically.
As the number of European-
educated Indian elites grew, they
would challenge Britain’s rights over
the subcontinent. Britain would
continue to assert its imperial
destiny, but increasingly had to
confront the improbability that it
could. If there was an enduring
truth, it was that British rule in India
was never as robust as it seemed. ■IN CONTEXT
FOCUS
British rule in IndiaBEFORE
1824 The British conquest
of Burma is launched; it is
largely completed by 1886.1876 Queen Victoria is
declared Empress of India.May 1857 The first revolt by
Indian sepoy troops against
British rule occurs at Meerut.AFTER
1858 The rule of the East India
Company in India is formally
ended. Control of India passes
directly to the British crown.1869 The Suez Canal
is opened, dramatically
reducing sailing times to
and from India.1885 The Indian National
Congress is founded—the first
pan-Indian political movement.
It later forms the core of a
nationalist movement.THESE SAD SCENES OF
DEATH AND SORROW,
WHEN ARE THEY TO
COME TO AN END?
THE SIEGE OF LUCKNOW (1857)
We hold ourselves bound to
the natives of our Indian
territories by the same
obligations of duty which
bind us to our other subjects.
Queen VictoriaUS_242-243_Lucknow_Serfs.indd 242 15/02/2016 16:43
243
See also: The founding of St. Petersburg 196–97 ■ The 1848 revolutions 228–29 ■
The construction of the Suez Canal 230–35 ■ The Crimean War 265 ■
The October Revolution 276–79A
lexander II’s emancipation
of Russia’s 20 million serfs
(unfree laborers) in 1861
was not a humanitarian act. Its
goal was a further attempt to
modernize a Russia that, regardless
of potential, was being left behind
by the industrializing nations of
the West. To take what it saw as
its rightful place in the world,
Russia adopted wide-ranging
reforms across political, social,
economic, and military areas.
The effects of these reforms
were mixed at best. Emancipation
did very little to improve the
serfs’ well-being or agricultural
productivity, and Alexander refused
to consider any real constitutional
reform: he remained an autocrat to
the last, convinced of his divine
right to rule as an absolute
monarch. However, his reforms
had raised hopes that a degree of
political liberalization might follow.A police state
His assassination in 1881 provoked
a predictably reactionary backlash.
His successor, Alexander III,showed greater willingness
to embrace industrial reform but
also created a kind of police state:
introducing strict censorship,
suppressing protest, and making
trade unions illegal.
Nonetheless, tsarist Russia was
emerging into the industrialized
world. The country could lay claim
to substantial, if not always efficient,
military means. Politically, however,
its unwillingness to reform would
ultimately ensure its complete
destruction in a Soviet revolution. ■CHANGING SOCIETIES
BETTER TO ABOLISH
SERFDOM FROM ABOVE,
THAN TO WAIT FOR IT
TO ABOLISH ITSELF
FROM BELOW
RUSSIA EMANCIPATES THE SERFS (1861)
IN CONTEXT
FOCUS
Tsarist RussiaBEFORE
1825 The Decembrist
revolt against tsarist rule
is suppressed.1853–55 Russia’s defeat
by Britain and France in
the Crimea highlights its
military weaknesses.AFTER
1881 Tsar Alexander II is
assassinated by the People’s
Will, an underground terrorist
movement.1891 Work on the Trans-
Siberian railway begins,
leading to massive new
settlements in Siberia.1894 The last tsar, Nicholas II,
allows finance minister Sergei
Witte to launch further
industrialization.1905 Russian expansion
in East Asia is halted by a
humiliating defeat by Japan.We must give the country
such industrial perfection as
has been reached by the
United States of America.
Sergei Witte
Russian ministerUS_242-243_Lucknow_Serfs.indd 243 15/02/2016 16:44